METHODS

2.1. Outline of the Present Study

This study constitutes an independent part of a Finnish national project, which further Comparative Study of Ethnocultural Youth (ICSEY). The ICSEY was developed by an international group of researchers[5] to study the adaptation and integration among immigrant and ethnic minority adolescents across cultures.

The main aim of the ICSEY project is to compare the results obtained in different Western host countries with diverse histories of immigration and immigration policies adopted, in order to produce a comprehensive framework within which to understand migrant adaptation. The ICSEY research program includes the following countries: Canada, Finland, France, Norway, Sweden, Israel, the Netherlands, Portugal, and the USA.

2.2. Participants

2.2.1. Sample of Russian-Speaking Immigrant Adolescents

A total of 170 Russian-speaking immigrant adolescents aged between 12 and 19 were studied. The sample consisted of 93 boys and 77 girls who arrived in Finland between 1987 and 1996 and who resided in the region of the City of Helsinki. On the basis of reported parental ethnicity or/and migration status, 96% of these adolescents were identified as coming from families of some Finnish descent. On the basis of parental reports of education and occupational position prior to immigration, the socio-economic status (SES) of the participating families reflected a middle-class bias. However, 70% of the mothers and 56% of the fathers were unemployed in Finland at the time of the data collection.

2.2.2. Comparison Groups

The sample of Russian-speaking adolescents was compared to (a) native Finnish adolescents (N = 190) (Studies III & IV) and (b) immigrant adolescents of Turkish, Vietnamese and Somalian backgrounds in Finland (N = 418) (Study V). The demographic characteristics of the sample of Russian-speaking adolescents and comparison groups are presented in Table 1. For more details and further clarification of the differences in demographic characteristics between the Russian-speaking sample and the comparison groups, see the original publications.

Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of the Sample of Russian-Speaking Adolescents and the   Comparison Groups

2.3. Procedure

The samples of Russian-speaking and native Finnish adolescents were taken from secondary schools in the region of Helsinki during the Spring term in 1996. All secondary schools identified as having Russian-speaking immigrant pupils were contacted and invited to participate in the study. None of them refused. The author personally visited these schools and invited immigrant and native pupils to participate in the study at a designated time. The natives were randomly selected from the same school levels and, when possible, also from the same classes as the immigrant respondents. All the participants were informed that their participation was voluntary and that their responses would be confidential. In principle, all pupils present in school at the designated time completed the questionnaire, which took approximately one hour.

The questionnaire was translated into Finnish and Russian from the original English version by two researchers at the University of Helsinki. The native pupils were given the Finnish version, and the Russian-speaking immigrants were given a choice of answering the questionnaire in Finnish or Russian, Russian being the preferred alternative. The pupils were also given a brief questionnaire with a postage-paid return envelope to take home for their parents.

A similar procedure was primarily used to collect data on the comparison immigrant group (i.e., Somalis, Vietnamese and Turks). Official and native-speaking language translators translated the questionnaire from the original English version into the respective languages. However, a substantial number of the Vietnamese and Turks required an additional postal survey. All the Turkish and Vietnamese respondents, and 67% of the Somalis, completed the questionnaire in Finnish.

2.4. Measures

All the measures used in this study were assembled by the ICSEY researchers (see Footnote 5) and were either developed for the ICSEY project or taken directly or with modification from existing scales, as described below. In addition to these measures which were common for all the countries participating in the ICSEY project, the questionnaire involved measures or single items which were initiated by and included only in some national projects, in this case in the Finnish project (these are marked below by *). The measures reported below are those used in the original publications of this study and in additional analyses conducted for this thesis. The reliability (Cronbach alpha) of the scales was generally high[6].

Ethnic self-identification (Studies I, II, III, & IV). Ethnic self-identification of immigrant adolescents was assessed by asking the respondents to chose the ethnic label they applied to themselves, also allowing for bicultural self-identification.

Linguistic self-identification (Study I). Linguistic self-identification among the respondents was assessed by asking them to indicate the language they felt was their mother tongue, also allowing for bilingual identification.

Ethnic identity (Studies I, II, & III).  Ethnic identity was assessed using a 14-item scale modified from Phinney's ethnic identity measure (1992). This measure was designed to examine the bicultural content of ethnic identity, in this case the degree of Russian and Finnish identity. The measure included items to tap three internal components of Russian and Finnish identity, namely, an individual's sense of belonging to, attitudes towards, and evaluation of being part of the respective groups. Two factors extracted from the factor analysis were named Degree of Russian Identity and Degree of Finnish Identity, and the factor scores were used in the later analyses.

Language use and proficiency (Studies I & V). The immigrants' Russian and Finnish language use and proficiency were assessed using a 12-item measure which consisted of six items regarding the Russian language and six items regarding Finnish. Of the six items, two assessed the frequency of speaking Russian and Finnish with parents, relatives and friends, and four items assessed proficiency in understanding, reading, and writing Finnish and Russian. In Study V, only a summed variable measuring the adolescents' proficiency in the Finnish language was used.

Cultural orientation of contacts (Studies I, III, & IV). Ten items regarding the frequency of the immigrants' involvement in Russian and Finnish activities covering five domains were used to assess their contacts with Russians and native Finns. The five domains were: friends, free time in and out of school, athletic activities, and involvement in culture-specific customs. Two factors extracted from the factor analysis were named Russian Contact Orientation and Finnish Contact Orientation, and the factor scores were used in the later analyses. In Study IV, only a summed variable measuring Finnish Contact Orientation was used.

Acculturation attitudes (Study III and additional analyses to Study II). Twenty items were formulated by Berry and his colleagues (Berry et al., 1989) to tap acculturation attitudes among immigrant adolescents. The scale assessed assimilation, integration, separation and marginalisation acculturation attitudes in each of five domains: marriage, cultural traditions, language, social activities and friends. Four factors extracted from the factor analysis were named Assimilation, Separation, Integration and Marginalisation, and the factor scores were used in the later analyses.

Acculturation orientations of the host nationals (additional analyses to Study II). Seven items were formulated to assess the native Finnish adolescents' preferences for the immigrants' acculturation option. Two items on the scale assessed assimilative, two items assessed integrative, two items assessed segregative, and one item assessed exclusive acculturation orientation. On the basis of Berry's model (e.g., Berry et al., 1987, 1989) four summed variables were constructed: Assimilation, Integration, Segregation and Exclusion, and these were used in the additional analyses to Study II.

Experiences of parental support and understanding* (Studies I, III, IV, & V). The measure of  immigrants' experiences of their parents' support and understanding consisted of six items: three that assessed their experiences of maternal support and understanding and three items assessed the experiences of paternal support. In order to allow separate investigation of the experiences of relationships with the mothers and the fathers, and of the possibility of gender-differentiated influences of perceived support provided by the mothers and the fathers on acculturation, the two factors were extracted from the factor analysis: the Mother's Support and the Father's Support, and the factor scores were used in the later analyses. A total score, calculated as a summed variable from all the six items, was also used in Study IV, whereas in Study V, two summed variables calculated on the basis of the factor solution were used instead of factor scores.

Family-related values (Studies III, IV, & V). A 14-item questionnaire concerning family-related values developed by the researchers from the scales of Nguyen & Williams (1989), Georgas (1989) and Georgas, Berry, Shaw, Christakopoulou, & Mylonas (1996) was used to assess family values characteristic of the immigrants and the natives on the one hand, and the actual degree of acculturation of the immigrant adolescents on the other.This scale consisted of items assessing attitudes towards parental authority and adolescent autonomy. Two factors extracted from the factor analysis were named Parental Authority and Children's Rights, with the former indicating adherence to hierarchical family structures based on age and gender, and the latter indicating the extent of acceptance of children's autonomy and freedom of choice. The factor scores were used in the later analyses in Study III. In the same study, however, in order to compare the immigrants' and the natives' values, the immigrant and native samples were merged into the same factor analysis, which produced the same factors as for the immigrant sample. In Study V, in turn, two summed variables calculated on the basis of factor solution were used instead of factor scores, and a total score, calculated as a summed variable from all fourteen items (Experiences of Parental Support), was used in Study IV.

Perceived discrimination (Studies IV & V, and additional analyses to Study II). The perceived discrimination scale was developed by the researchers and consisted of nine items: four items that assessed perceived frequency of being treated unfairly or negatively because of one's ethnic background by school peers and  teachers, as well as by other adults and children or adolescents outside of school; and five items that assessed experiences of being teased or threatened, or feeling unaccepted because of one's ethnicity. A total score, calculated as a summed variable from all nine items, was used in the later analyses to assess the overall amount of perceived discrimination as experienced by the immigrant adolescents.

Psychological well-being (Studies IV & V). The psychological well-being of the immigrant adolescents was assessed using five different measures:

1). Acculturative stress (Studies IV & V). This scale consisted of 15 items measuring depression, anxiety and psychosomatic stress symptoms. The items were taken from the following questionnaires: Beiser & Fleming (1986); Kinzie, Manson, Vinh, Tolan, Anh, & Pho (1982); Kovacs (1980/1981); Mollica, Wyshak, de Marneffe, Khuon, & Lavelle (1987); Reynolds & Richmond (1985); and Robinson, Shaver, & Wrightsman (1991). In Study IV, a total score calculated as a summed variable from all the 15 reversed items was used to assess the degree of psychological adjustment[7] among the immigrant adolescents, and compared to the level of psychological stress symptoms among their native Finnish peers. In Study V, on the other hand, a total score calculated as a summed variable from all the 15 non-reversed items was used to assess the degree of acculturative stress among the immigrant adolescents.

2). Behavioural problems (Study V). This scale was based on Olweus's (1989) measure, with modifications by the researchers. It included ten items assessing frequency of antisocial behaviours such as stealing, destroying property, bullying and misbehaving in school. A total score (i.e., Behavioural Problems) calculated as a summed variable from all ten items was used in the later analyses.

3). Self-esteem (Studies IV & V). Global self-esteem was measured using Rosenberg's (1986) 10-item self-esteem inventory. A total score (i.e., Global Self-esteem), calculated as a summed variable from all ten items, was used in the later analyses to assess the global self-esteem of the immigrant adolescents. In Study IV, this score was used as a mediating factor between the acculturation problems and psychological adjustment of the immigrant adolescents, whereas in Study V it was used as one of the indices of their psychological well-being.

4). Life satisfaction (Study V). This scale was developed by Diener, Emmons, Larsen, and Griffin (1985), and it consisted of five items. A total score (i.e., Life Satisfaction), calculated as a summed variable from all five items, was used in the later analyses to assess the overall degree of life satisfaction as experienced by the immigrant adolescents.

5). Sense of mastery (Study V). This scale consisted of six items and measured the degree to which adolescents felt that they were in control of their lives. It was based on several existing scales: Connell (1985), Levenson (1981), Paulhus (1983), and Pearlin & Schooler (1978). A total score (i.e., Sense of Mastery), calculated as a summed variable from all six items, was used in the later analyses to assess the degree to which the adolescents felt competent in their lives.