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Nitrous oxide (N2O) is an important greenhouse gas with a lifetime of 121 years and radiative efficiency of 219 times that of carbon dioxide (CO2). Nitrous oxide concentration has increased in the atmosphere from the 1800’s, in recent decades with increasing rate. Pristine mires have detected to have small N2O emissions, but drained peatlands are a major source of anthropogenic N2O emissions. Peatland restoration has been detected to be a tool for climate change mitigation. Peatlands act as a major carbon storage and carbon balance of pristine and drained peatlands has been widely studied. Nitrous oxide is one of the major peatland related greenhouse gases but has not been studied as intensively from restored peatlands in the boreal zone. Peatland restoration area has increased in Finland in recent decades due to biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation. The total impact of peatland restoration on all greenhouse gas emissions has not been thoroughly studied. Nitrous oxide has received less attention than methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide. This thesis aims to gain more information on N2O emissions from restored peatlands and evaluate which factors affect the emissions. N2O flux data from 25 restored peatlands from Southern and Central Finland was analysed. The data was collected during May–August of 2022 from forestry-drained restored peatlands. Measurements were conducted on former strips and ditches of restored peatlands. Measurement sites had been divided into drained peatland forest types according to vegetation. The research indicates that N2O fluxes from rewetted, forestry-drained peatlands centre to small positive and negative values. Variation is wider than with pristine mires, but mean values for this measurement period were not significantly higher. Drained peatland forest type had a weak impact on N2O emissions, nutrient-rich sites had higher mean N2O emissions compared to less fertile sites of the study. Highest N2O emissions were measured from nutrient-rich site ditches. Less fertile sites of the study acted as a net sink of N2O on both strip and ditch. Environmental factors as water table (WT) level and soil temperature had an impact on N2O emissions, thus WT level as the only individual explanatory variable explained the variation in N2O emissions the most. N2O emission seemed to slightly decrease with years passing since restoration activities. This trend was the most visible with nutrient-rich sites. C/N ratio had a slight negative trend with site mean N2O emissions on both strip and ditch during the measurement season. Future research is needed to understand the dynamics of higher spatial and temporal N2O emissions.

Over 60% of all the forest land in Finland is owned by private forest owners and most of these forests are owned by families. Private forest owners have been studied in Finland quite a lot, but there are still quite few studies about women owning forest land. The theory is based on previous Finnish, Swedish and American studies about female forest owners. The goals of this study were to describe women and their behaviour as forest owners as well as explore how they use forest consultation services, which background characteristics influenced the usage and how it differed from men’s behaviour. The data used in this study was Suomalainen metsänomistaja 2010 and it has been gathered during 2004-2008 via postal survey. The sample, 13,000, was divided into 13 forest centres. Valid responses were obtained 6318, so the percentage of responses was 49,2%. The background characteristics and behaviour of female forest owners were explored by using means and cross-tabs. Linear regression model and logit-model were used to describe the usage of forest consultation services and the background characteristics influencing it. On the supposition that the amount of the female forest owners has been under estimated in previous studies (25%), the purpose of this study is also to determine more exact number. Previously, the amount of female forest owners has been estimated on the strength of the respondent of the postal survey, but it hasn’t been taken into account that men are more likely to answer the survey than women. This study showed that 38% or 44% of all forest owners in Finland were women depending on the calculation method. Female forest owners were older and better educated than men, but they sold less wood as well as did less maintenance work and also their estates were smaller. Women used the forest consultation services less frequent than men. Women’s goals of owning forest were also different from men’s, since over a third of women used their forest for recreational purposes. Women were more passive forest owners than men. This can be partly explained by the large amount of women using their forest for recreational purposes. Women could be encouraged to be more active through a women’s own network. These kinds of networks have been put into practice for example in the USA.

Background and the aim of the study: Based on previous literature, the cooperation between catering workers and early childhood educators is essential for providing special diets and food education activities in day-care centres. This cooperation is scarcely studied. Furthermore, while some research has been conducted in the school environment, the perceptions and roles of catering workers on food education have not been previously studied in the early education environment. Therefore, this thesis aimed to examine how catering workers and early childhood educators perceive their cooperation and to observe their dynamic in the day-care environment. Additionally, the aim was to explore what perceptions catering workers and early childhood educators have on food education, their role as food educators, and the relationship that children have with catering workers and the kitchen. Material and methods: The study was qualitative by design with an ethnographic emphasis. Observation and interview data were collected from four day-care centres in the Pirkanmaa region. In each day-care centre, data was collected for two days by observing a group mealtime and interaction moments between catering workers and early childhood educators. Mealtime observations were recorded using a form developed based on the Environment and Policy Assessment and Observation (EPAO) -tool. The children in the mealtime observation groups were mainly 2-5 -years old, though one group of 1-3 -years old was also studied. Besides observations, two interviews were conducted in each day-care centre: one with a catering worker and the other with an early childhood educator. Interviews (n=8) were performed as thematic interviews. Interview and observation data were combined in the analysis phase. The analysis was data-based content analysis. Symbolic interaction theory was used as a guide in data collection and as a reflection point for the results. Results and conclusion: Early childhood educators strongly emphasised mealtime related topics and the children’s role in food education during interviews. There were slight differences between early childhood educators´ descriptions of food education, which were similarly reflected in mealtime observations. Catering workers emphasised the properties of food and food appreciation more often than early childhood educators. Catering workers and early childhood educators experienced their cooperation to be rather good, though perceptions on what good collaboration included differed. Staff interactions were subject to constant change and cooperation was unique to each day-care centre. Data analysis from both observation and interviews revealed “the symbols of cooperation” as a common theme, which was divided into four categories: 1) flexible interpretation of the service contract, 2) staff parties, 3) a shared break room, and 4) an open kitchen door. Catering workers and early childhood educators considered children to perceive catering workers divergent from other adults but not unfamiliar. The kitchen was considered a place that interested children but remained a somewhat unfamiliar and forbidden place for them. Results provide new insight for the perceived and observed cooperation between catering workers and early childhood educators and their perceptions about food education. Despite the potential for cooperation and food education, childrens’ relationship with catering workers was described to be distant and, therefore, provides opportunity for further studies.

Faba bean (Vicia faba L.) is an economical, sustainable source of vegetable protein. Antinutrients and unpleasant flavor restrict its use for animal feed and human consumption. Addition of faba bean flour or other protein rich bean flours has a big influence on the structure and flavor of baked products. The aim of this study was to find out how the structure and sensory profile changed when native faba bean (NHP) flour or fermented faba bean (RHP) flour was added to wheat bread. The study was organized into two substudies 1) The wheat breads were baked with 0–50 % faba bean flour (NHP0, NHP10, NHP30, NHP50) 2) The breads were baked with 30 % faba bean flour fermented with four different lactic acid bacteria (R1HP, R2HP, R3HP, R4HP and control sample NHP30r). Generic descriptive analysis (GDA) was used for evaluations (n = 12). NHP breads were evaluated with 13 attributes: five related to an odour, two to colour, four to texture and two to taste. In RHP evaluation, three attributes were added: musty odour, crumb musty taste, and crumb sour taste. The analysis of variance showed that the amount of faba bean or the type of fermentation had an effect in each attribute except in odour of yeast in RHP breads. NHP30 control samples were evaluated similarly in both substudies. High levels of faba bean (NHP30, NHP50) made the intensities of odour and flavour stronger and texture less smooth compared to wheat bread with lower levels of faba bean. Weissella confusa fermented bread (R1HP) differed considerably from other fermented samples in texture, specific volum, colour and in some odour and flavour attributes. The Weissella confusa E3403-strain, used in bread R1HP, produces exopolysaccharides, which transforms the technological attributes of faba bean flour more suitable for wheat baking. The Weissella confusa E3403-strain also excludes the negative side effects affecting the taste and texture and enables the high faba bean and protein level in wheat bread.

Tämän tutkielman tarkoituksena oli validoida natriummääritysmenetelmä Tullilaboratorion käyttöön elintarvikkeiden suolapitoisuuden määrittämiseen. Uuden lainsäädännön mukaan elintarvikkeen suolapitoisuus tulee määrittää natriumpitoisuuden kautta, jolloin suolapitoisuuden analyysitekniikka muuttui kloridimäärityksestä natriummääritykseksi. Kirjallisuustutkimuksessa käsiteltiin natriumin ja suolan esiintymistä, merkitystä elintarvikkeissa ja merkitystä ihmisen terveyteen sekä sen lainsäädäntöä. Myös natriummääritysmenetelmiä tarkasteltiin, mutta pääasiassa keskityttiin ICP-OES-tekniikkaan. Kokeellisessa tutkimuksessa menetelmän validoinnissa käytettiin kahta eri varmennettua vertailunäytettä (BCR-383®, papujauhe ja ERM-BD150®, maitojauhe). Lisäksi menetelmää testattiin kahdella FAPAS-näytteellä (säilykeliha-ateria ja omenamehu). Näyte märkäpoltettiin vahvassa hapossa (69 % typpihappoa ja 30 % vetyperoksidia) ja laimennettiin 1 %:seksi typpihapoksi. Näyte analysoitiin ICP-OES-tekniikalla, jossa huuhteluliuoksena käytettiin myös 1-prosenttista typpihappoa. Menetelmän validoitavia parametreja olivat spesifisyys, herkkyys, lineaarisuus ja tarkkuus. Lisäksi määritettiin mittausalue, toteamisraja ja määritysraja ja menetelmän epävarmuus. Näytteiden tuloksia verrattiin vielä vertailuarvoon ja näytteille laskettiin z-arvot. Menetelmä oli tarkka, sen määritysrajaksi muodostui 2,5 mg/100 g. Menetelmän laajennetuksi epävarmuudeksi saatiin kaksi arvoa; 29 % pienille natriumpitoisuuksille ja 5-12 % suurille natriumpitoisuuksille (lisätty suola). Kaikkien menetelmässä käytettyjen näytteiden z-arvot vaihtelivat välillä 0,3-2,1. Menetelmä testattiin toimivaksi ja sitä tullaan jatkossa käyttämään elintarvikkeiden suolapitoisuusmäärityksissä Tullilaboratoriossa. Menetelmä myös akkreditoidaan syksyn 2014 aikana.

Tutkielman kirjallisuusosassa perehdyttiin suolan (NaCl) teknologisiin ja aistittaviin vaikutuksiin vehnä- ja ruisleivonnassa. Lisäksi tutustuttiin suolan korvaamisessa käytettyihin menetelmiin kuten mineraalisuoloihin ja suolan maun intensiteetin nostamiseen eri menetelmin. Edelleen käsiteltiin suolan vaikutuksia terveyteen ja keinoja suolan saannin vähentämiseen. Natriumia saadaan ravinnosta Suomessa reilusti yli suositusten. Noin kolmannes suolasta saadaan viljavalmisteista, siksi suolan vähentämisellä leivästä olisi suuri merkitys natriumin saantiin. Kokeellisessa osassa tarkoituksena oli puolittaa ruispalaleivän suolapitoisuus kaliumkloridin (KCl) tai kaliumsitraatin avulla rakenteen kärsimättä ja parantaa leipien makua pintasuolausmenetelmällä. Pintasuolauksessa leivän pintaan suihkutettiin suolaliuosta heti paiston jälkeen niin, että natriumkloridipitoisuudeksi leivässä tuli 0,3 %. Ruispalaleipäresepti jäljitteli kaupallisten ruispalaleipien reseptiä. Käytettiin kolmea pitoisuutta natriumkloridia, ja natriumkloridi korvattiin ekvivalenttisesti kaliumkloridilla tai kaliumsitraatilla. Taikinoiden konsistenssia tarkastettiin farinografilla ja leivistä määritettiin tilavuus, painohäviö, murenevuus, sisuksen kovuus sekä pH ja happoluku. Lisäksi leipiä arvioitiin aistinvaraisesti ruispalaleipiä varten kehitetyn laatuarviointilomakkeen avulla. Pintasuolausmenetelmän soveltuvuutta sekä mineraalisuolojen virhemakuja arvioi aistinvaraisesti kolmihenkinen asiantuntijaraati. Ruispalaleivät, jotka sisälsivät 0,6 tai 1,2 % natriumkloridia tai ekvivalenttisesti korvattuna kaliumkloridia tai kaliumsitraattia, olivat tilavuudeltaan, sisuksen kovuudeltaan ja aistinvaraiselta rakenteeltaan laadukkaita. Kaliumkloridia tai kaliumsitraattia sisältäneiden leipien maku oli kuitenkin suolaton ja leivissä oli virhemakuja kuten karvautta ja metallisuutta. Kaliumkloridia tai kaliumsitraattia sisältävien leipien makua pyrittiin parantamaan pintasuolauksella. Pintasuolaus ei kuitenkaan häivyttänyt kaliumin makua, vaan osa raatilaisista koki varsinkin kaliumkloridia sisältävät leivät epämiellyttävänä. Siksi kehitettiin vielä leipä, jossa vain osa natriumkloridista oli korvattu kaliumkloridilla tai kaliumsitraatilla taikinassa ja joka pintasuolattiin. Nämä leivät olivat maultaan hyväksyttäviä ja kuitenkin natriumkloridipitoisuus jäi tavoiteltuun 0,6 %:iin. Kaliumkloridi tai kaliumsitraatti sopivissa pitoisuuksissa ja pintasuolausmenetelmä ovat siis käyttökelpoisia keinoja suolan vähentämisen avuksi ruispalaleivissä.

The concept of natural capital encompasses resources found in nature, both biotic and abiotic. Natural capital accounting is a method to assess these assets in monetary terms. Currently, natural capital accounting is not mandatory, but it offers a valuable tool for a holistic valuation of the asset base. Scholars have noted that the current unsustainable use of natural capital resources may ultimately lead to reduced profits due to natural degradation and natural capital accounting is a step to make the difference to reveal nature’s true value. Natural capital accounting is suggested as a beneficial tool for quantifying natural capital assets in monetary terms. Natural capital accounting is currently future-oriented method to answer possible legislation changes and offers a portfolio-like view of assets for different stakeholders. Forests holds various resources that produce a variety of benefits, not limited to trees alone In many countries worldwide, forests are primarily publicly owned. However, in Europe, especially in Finland, forest ownership is predominantly private. Many of natural capital accounting guidelines lack a private perspective. Therefore, this study aims to develop natural capital accounts for a Finnish forest property entity of 3808 hectares in the Pirkanmaa region. The framework employed for this purpose is the Corporate Natural Capital Accounting (CNCA) framework by eftec. From a corporate standpoint, the CNCA framework proves effective in providing a comprehensive overview of natural capital assets. CNCA assigns value for asset owners and for society while maintaining flexibility for further analysis and extensions. In this study, natural capital accounting for private forest owners is addressed through the accounting of forest holdings. Asset valuation was assembled using quantitative data from open sources and third-party data, employing meta-analysis. Prices were determined based on market prices and meta-analysis. This study also emphasizes the importance of discounting in valuation. It's worth noting that the discount rate is not expected to be identical for a company and for society due to the concept of intergenerational discounting. This concept prioritizes present sustainability for the sake of future generations, underscoring its greater significance.

Establishment of Pinus kesiya Roy. ex Gord. plantations in Thailand began in the 1960s by the Royal Forest Department. The aim was to reforest abandoned swidden areas and grasslands in order to reduce erosion and to produce timber and fuel wood. Today there are about 150, 000 ha of P. kesiya plantations in northern Thailand. Most of these plantations cannot be harvested due to a national logging ban. Previous studies have suggested that Pinus kesiya plantations posses a capability as a foster environment for native broadleaved tree species, but little is known about the extent of regeneration in these plantations. The general aim of the study was to clarify the extent of forest regeneration and interactions behind it in Pinus kesiya plantations of the Ping River basin, northern Thailand. Based on the results of this study and previous literature, forest management proposals were produced for the area studied. In four different pine plantation areas, a total of seven plantations were assessed using systematic data collection with clustered circular sample plots. Vegetation and environmental data were statistically analysed, so as to recognise the key factors affecting regeneration. Regeneration had occurred in all plantations studied. Regeneration of broadleaved trees was negatively affected by forest fire and canopy coverage. A high basal area of mature broadleaved trees affected the regeneration process positively. Forest fire disturbance had a strong effect also on plantation structure and species composition. Because of an unclear future forest management setting as regards forest laws in Thailand, a management system that enables various future utilisation possibilities and emphasises local participation is recommended for P. kesiya watershed platations of northern Thailand.

Maisterintutkielman kirjallisuuskatsauksessa perehdyttiin naudan jauhelihan laatuun ja pilaantumi-seen vaikuttaviin tekijöihin alkaen naudan kasvatuksesta ja päättyen valmiiksi jauhelihapak-kaukseksi. Tutkimuksen kokeellisen osan tarkoituksena oli selvittää, mitkä tekijät vaikuttavat jau-helihan säilyvyyteen nykyisessä prosessissa ja millä tavoin säilyvyyttä voidaan parantaa. Tutki-muksessa valmistettiin rasvapitoisuudeltaan 17 % naudan jauhelihaa kolmella eri reseptillä. Resep-teistä valmistettiin näytteet kahdella eri prosessinopeudella. Tutkimuksessa tehtiin 12 vuorokauden säilyvyyskoe kuudelle eri näytteelle. Aistinvaraisessa arvioinnissa näytteiden väriä tutkittiin 3- ja 7-portaisilla asteikoilla sekä näytteiden värivirhettä 9-portaisella asteikolla, n=3 (asiantuntijaraati). Kolmiportainen asteikko oli kuvattu arvosanoilla hyvä, tyydyttävä, huono. Seitsenportaisessa asteikossa joka toinen sana oli kuvattu väreillä kirkkaanpunainen, punainen, harmahtava ja harmaa, ja asteikon tueksi oli laadittu värikart-ta. Värivirheasteikossa joka toinen sana oli kuvattu: ei värivirhettä, hento värivirhe, pieni värivirhe, kohtalainen värivirhe ja äärimmäinen värivirhe. Laboratoriotutkimuksissa mitattiin pakkauksien suojakaasuista happi ja hiilidioksidi, määritettiin näytteiden kokonaisbakteerit sekä mitattiin pH ja rasvapitoisuus (%). Näytteitä tutkittiin valmistuspäivänä ja kun niiden ikä oli 4, 6, 10 ja 12 vuoro-kautta. Tuloksissa huomattiin, että reseptillä oli tilastollisesti merkitsevä p<0,001 ero aistinvaraisten arvi-ointien tuloksiin. Massan jäähdyttäminen hiilidioksidilla huononsi jauhelihan väriä. Lisäksi se nosti hiilidioksidin ja laski hapen määrää pakkauksessa. Pakasteraaka-aineen osuuden lisääminen kasvat-ti näytteiden kokonaisbakteerien määrää. Prosessinopeuden nopeuttaminen auttoi ylläpitämään jauhelihan punaista väriä pitempään.

The objective of the literature review was to study the background of the greenhouse effect and map earlier studies of the greenhouse gas emissions of beef and other meat products. The objective of the literature review was also to study life cycle assessment used in previous studies to calculate the carbon footprint of food products, following the ISO 14040-standard. The aim of the experimental work was to calculate the carbon footprint of the beef processing chain in Finland from the farm gate to the consumer´s table. In addition the aim was to understand the importance of processing chain emissions compared to the whole beef production chain and different steps in the processing chain. The functional unit in the study was 1 kg of beef. The work was carried out by studying in detail one beef processing chain in Finland. Emissions were calculated based on real processing data from the collaborating company. The data was collected with an information form by visiting two production plants in the collaborating company and conducting further interviews. The carbon footprint of the beef processing chain was 1240 g CO2-ekv/kg meat. Most emissions were produced by refining (310 g CO2-ekv/kg meat), slaughtering (280 g CO2-ekv/kg meat) and transporting meat products to the consumer (210 g CO2-ekv/kg meat). The processing chain represents only 4 % of total beef production chain emissions as the emission from birth to the farm gate are, according to literature, over 30 000 g CO2-ekv/kg meat. In the future, the carbon footprint of the beef could be reduced mainly by developing the process from the birth to the farm gate. The results were very similar to previous research of the chicken processing chain in Finland (Katajajuuri et al. 2008). This was as expected because there were no significant differences in the processing chain. Previous studies of the beef processing chain were not available.