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(2020)The European migrant crisis led to the implementation of the hotspots in Greece and Italy. The Greek hotspots were regulated by both the hotspot approach and the EU-Turkey Statement. After I had spent the spring and summer of 2016 at the Lepida hotspot on Leros, I wanted to study the structure of it more closely. Once the judgement of the European Court of Human Rights’ case J.R. and others v. Greece was published, I became interested in the accountability of the European Union within the hotspots. This thesis will therefore serve as an analysis of the hotspots in Greece and the scheme that lies behind them. The relationship of the European Union and the European Convention of Human Rights will be studied. The accountability of the European Union within the structure of the Greek hotspots will be analysed by using possible human rights violations assessed by the European Court of Human Rights as a sample. The first chapter presents naturally the personal aspect of the topic and the research questions as well as the method and structure of the thesis. The second chapter focuses on giving the reader an overview of the background that has given rise to the hotspots. Further focusing on the Greek hotspots solely. The hotspot approach and the EU-Turkey Statement are presented. The third chapter will dive into the EU’s protection of human rights. This topic will be presented in the light of the European Convention of Human Rights. Thus, the accession of the EU will be studied as well as the reality of the doctrine of equivalent protection. The European Court of Human Rights’ case J.R. and others v. Greece is the focus of the fourth chapter. I here also analyse the judgement of the case. The absence of the EU within the subject of responsibility of the Greek hotspots leads me further into the topic. The fifth chapter probes different accountability and responsibility theories of international organisation, in this case the EU. The theories are seen in the light of the human rights protection of the EU. The complexity of the topic shows that the EU cannot be held accountable for the human rights violations that are sampled. Finally, I conclude my thesis with my findings and recommendations towards further studies. The study reveals that the combination of the Greek hotspots and the accountability of the EU do not match within the structure that I have presented.
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(2016)Tiivistelmä – Referat – Abstract When parties become unable to pay for the costs of arbitration, they sometimes seek to resort to litigation in national courts. In such circumstances, UK courts, in reference to the UK Arbitration Act, have held that impecuniosity of a party would not invalidate the agreement to arbitrate and impecunious parties could thus not be allowed to resort to litigation while there is a valid arbitration agreement. Research in this thesis found, in light of recent US courts decisions, that an economically superior party could purposely make arbitration expensive and consequently unaffordable for an economically inferior party by insisting on undue conformity with the requirements of procedural due process. When issue of impecuniosity is raised by a party who seeks to resort to litigation and a counterparty seeks to compel arbitration, the approach of the US courts is that the party who seeks to compel arbitration could either pay for the costs of arbitration or the impecunious party should be allowed to resort to litigation in the national court. This thesis suggests that in order not to foreclose economically inferior parties from obtaining justice because of impecuniosity which might be unscrupulously occasioned by economically superior parties during the course of arbitration, the UK courts should adopt similar approach taken by the US courts in some cases.
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(2019)Electricity consumption and production should be balanced all the time to keep the electricity flow available. However, the consumption varies depending on the time of the year and day, being highest on cold winter mornings and lowest on summer times. On the other hand, amount of renewable electricity has increased previous years, which has made conventional electricity unprofitable and some conventional electricity producers have therefore already left the market. At the same time, renewable electricity, e.g. wind, is dependent on the time of the year and day. This has led to a situation, where the amount of inflexible electricity sources has increased and the threat for power outages has become more actual. Therefore, the countries must secure the balance between consumption and production, for example by enacting capacity mechanisms, to secure the security of supply and the generation adequacy. European Union published Communication from the Commission, Guidelines on State Aid for environmental protection and energy 2014-2020 (2014/C 200/01) (the “EEAG”) in 2014, and the Report from the Commission, Final Report of the Sector Inquiry on Capacity Mechanisms {SWD(2016) 385 final} (the “State aid sector inquiry”) in 2016. EEAG includes possibility for the Member States to grant aid to secure the generation adequacy in electricity sector (capacity mechanism). However, to be compatible with the EEAG and thus with the internal market, these capacity mechanisms should meet seven criteria; objective of common interest, need for state intervention, appropriateness of the aid, incentive effect, proportionality of the aid, avoidance of undue negative effects on competition and trade and transparency. The aim of this thesis was to examine how compatible capacity mechanisms in Finland and Sweden are with the EEAG. The Finnish capacity mechanism as well as the Swedish capacity mechanism were enacted before the launch of the EEAG and therefore they are based on other state aid exemptions; so-called SGEI Exemption and TFEU Article 106(2). However, these exemptions require less than the EEAG requires. The Commission has not analysed the compatibility of the Finnish and Swedish capacity mechanisms with the internal market and there is always a risk that the Commission decides to initiate an examination of their compatibility. If the Commission states that the capacity mechanisms do not meet the requirements of the SGEI Exemption or the TFEU Article 106(2), they should meet the requirements of the EEAG. Even though the measures in Finland and Sweden are quite similar, the result in the analysis was partially different. Outcome of the analysis was that both capacity mechanisms fully met only two requirements out of seven requirements; requirements of incentive effect and avoidance of undue negative effects on competition and trade. In addition, it was hard to say whether the capacity mechanisms meet the requirement of transparency, since there was no information available on the amount of the aid and thus whether the aid exceeds the amount of EUR 500,000. The major reason why the Finnish capacity mechanism does not fully meet the requirements of the EEAG is that Finland assesses the need for the capacity mechanism every fourth year, which is why the system is not based on an up-to-date information. In addition, the system does not have an end-date but is instead meant to be a permanent system, which is not compatible with the requirements of the EEAG. The biggest reason why the Swedish capacity mechanism cannot be deemed to be compatible with the EEAG is that Sweden assesses the need for the capacity mechanism too rarely, so the decisions are not based on an up-to-date information. In addition, Sweden has not published the indicator on which it has based its assessment on need of the capacity mechanism and the estimations of the generation adequacy situations in the future in Sweden are not consistent with the analysis of ENTSO-E.
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(2020)The field of international aviation has in the past decades had many regulatory changes and new international aviation treaties have been introduced. One example is the international private law instrument on property, signed on November 16 of 2001, the Convention on International Interests on Mobile Equipment, (Convention) along with the Protocol to the Convention on International Interests in Mobile Equipment on matters specific to Aircraft Equipment (Protocol), hereinaf-ter collectively called the CTC. The aim with the CTC was to create clear and uniform rules to facilitate international finan-cial transactions on aircraft objectives. CTC, as a modern instrument, provides for flexibility allowing states to make dec-larations in line with its national policies. A creditor friendly declaration by a state with less legal barriers at international level reduces the exposure of risk for the creditors. As a consequence, the cost of financing aircraft is reduced for the air carriers. This thesis examines the ultimate test of the instrument namely the main legal issues related with the exercising of credi-tor rights when the debtor defaults on the rental payments of e.g. operational leases of aircraft. The underlying presump-tion is that if a state has opted-in on “self-help” remedies such as the irrevocable deregistration and export request au-thorization (IDERA) then creditors financing aircraft in a CTC jurisdiction could rely on the declarations voluntarily made by the state in the event of a default of the debtor. This provides legal certainty. The IDERA is the core of the instrument. It effectively rules out the possibility for national aviation authorities and courts to use its discretion. Furthermore, clear rules on priority based on the established international registry for creation and perfection of an interest will support the process of exercising creditor rights. There is one exception to the priority order, the non-consensual rights and inter-ests (NCRI). A validly registered international interests would however have priority over the NCRI in case the lien de-clared under the Convention is not derived from the domestic law of the state. By using case study as method, the discussion ultimately concerns if the CTC provides an effective platform for the avia-tion industry to facilitate global aircraft financing. The results on the case law of Spice Jet in India provides that deregis-tration of aircraft as part of the scope of IDERA does not permit the exercise of discretion by the aviation authority. While the court adjudicated the case correctly and upheld the CTC rules it seems that India continues not to be effectively com-pliant to the CTC. The CTC is a complex instrument consisting of 99 Articles. The Aviation Working Group (AWG) offers education to states and other stakeholders. It has also recently established a new risk assessment tool, the Compliance Index. This tool provides a predictive assessment on future compliance by Contracting States. This case clearly shows the unfairness of the NCRI as a concept particularly in an operational lease transaction. Liens fit ill with the modern avia-tion industry of today. Leasing as a form of financing tend to be most common used form of financing. There are valuable guidelines for states in connection to liens and fleet liens. Deregistration as a concept is a process under the Convention on International Civil Aviation of December 7, 1944 (Chi-cago Convention) and relates to the Certificate of Registration (COR) of aircraft. All aircraft need to bear a nationality. The notion of registration and reregistration is regulated in the Chicago Convention, but there is no mention of deregistra-tion. This gap has consequences for the CTC. The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) has previously facili-tated the process of Art 83bis with good results. ICAO could similarly take the lead and provide solutions and best prac-tice in order to close the gap between registration and re-registration. This would further enhance the global aircraft financing as an effective platform for the aviation industry.
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(2021)Klimatkompensation har blivit ett populärt sätt för konsumenter och företag att bidra till bekämpning av klimatförändring. Klimatkompensation, dvs. köpandet av en verifierad kompensationsenhet som produceras av miljövänliga projekt runtom i världen, regleras inte på en statlig eller mellanstatlig nivå, utan regelverket runt klimatkompensation består främst av självreglerande certifieringsprogram som upprätthåller regler och processer som kompensationsprojekt måste uppfylla för att få certifikatets tillkännagivande om kompensationsenhetens trovärdighet. Kontroversen kring till förhållandet mellan klimatkompensation och lagen om penningsamlingar (863/2019) som uppstod år 2019 har resulterat i att Inrikesministeriet inlett diverse utredningar om hur frivillig klimatkompensation kunde regleras och övervakas för att säkerställa att verksamheten sker på ett tillförlitligt sett. Under utredningsprocessen har möjligheten för Konsumentskyddsmannen att funktionera som övervakande och verkställande myndighet diskuterats. Detta utgör forskningsintresset i denna studie, som försöker besvara följande fråga; vilket/vilka reglerings- och övervakningsinstrument borde myndigheterna tillämpa på den inhemska klimatkompensationsmarknaden för att säkerställa att verksamheten fyller kraven på tillförlitlig klimatkompensation? Avhandlingen granskar ämnet från perspektivet av Konsumentskyddsmannens breda övervaknings- och verkställighetsmandat under konsumentskyddslagen (38/1978) genom rättsdogmatisk metod, men analysen grundar sig främst på rättsteoretisk granskning av regleringsstrategier presenterade i den internationella rättslitteraturen. De övervaknings- och verkställighetsstrategier som identifierades i den internationella rättsliteraturen genom en systematisk litteraturöversikt är 1) vägledning och instruktioner 2) offentlig tillkänna givning av privata certifieringsprogram genom separat lagstiftning samt 3) upprättande av en registreringsskyldighet för säljare av kompensationsenheter. Dessa strategier analyseras utifrån kriterierna av effektivitet och kostnads effektivitet, samt hur de förhåller sig till den finska Konsumentskyddsmannens övervaknings- och verkställighetsmandat. Dessutom framställs minimikrav som borde uppfyllas för att effektiv övervakning och verkställighet av klimatkompenseringens legitimitet kan säkerställas. Avhandlingen finner att även om sampeln är begränsad, borde Konsumentskyddsmannen inom sin så kallade compliance-verksamhet i första hand utveckla vägledning och instruktioner till både säljare och köpare (konsumenter) av klimatkompensationsenheter för att åtgärda informationsbristen som existerar inom denna marknad. Denna vägledning bör innefatta minimikraven på tillförlitlig klimatkompensation, samt redogöra för säljarens informationsskyldighet under 6 § och 7 § av konsumentskyddslagen. Tilläggsåtgärder med att antingen offentligt implementera ett privat certifieringsprogram, eller genom upprättande av en registreringsskyldighet, borde även implementeras för att säkerställa effektiv övervakning av denna verksamhet. Dock är de två senaste åtgärderna beroende av den framtida utvecklingen av EU-rätten eftersom konsumentskydd är ett område som berörs av principen för harmonisering inom den inre marknaden. Slutsatserna är även att implementering av regleringsåtgärder för klimatkompensation kräver mer forskning av diverse juridiska faktorer som kompensationsenheter berör, samt internationellt avgörande av hur klimatkompensation borde hanteras inom de mellanstatliga utsläppsminskningsmålen.
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(2014)This thesis is going to do a comparative study of the Nordic Maritime Codes, Chinese Maritime Code and Rotterdam Rules (United Nations Convention on Contract for the International Carriage of Goods Wholly or Partly by Sea) with respect to carrier’s obligations and liabilities imposed hereupon. The backgrounds for this study are the ambitious goals and controversial future of the Rotterdam Rules, the significant roles that the Nordic countries and China have played in international carriage of goods by sea, and the important position of the carrier’s mandatory obligations and liabilities in this field. Through the comparative study, this thesis tries to disclose the similarities and differences between these legal regimes, to see what changes will be brought to the Nordic/Chinese maritime laws and what impact may be led to their shipping industries if they finally accept the Rotterdam Rules. Based on these backgrounds, the detail contents discussed in this thesis include: (1) the legislative history and scope of application; (2) period of carrier’s responsibility; (3) carrier’s obligations; (4) carrier’s liability for physical loss of or damage to the goods; (5) carrier’s liability for delay in delivery; (6) carrier’s liabilities for deviation, deck cargo and live animals. Each of the NMCs, CMC and the Rotterdam Rules is respectively discussed in detail under each part. By comparing the regional solutions and the new international Convention, at the end of this thesis the possible future of the Rotterdam Rules is discussed from Nordic and Chinese perspectives of views.
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(2013)Tutkielman tarkoituksena on cash pooling –järjestelmien arvioiminen osakeyhtiölain näkökulmasta ja sen selvittäminen, mitä vaatimuksia osakeyhtiölain säännökset asettavat cash pooling –järjestelmille, miten järjestelmät tulisi lainmukaisesti toteuttaa ja mitä seuraamuksia aiheutuu, jos cash pooling –järjestelmät rikkovat osakeyhtiölain säännöksiä. Cash pooling –järjestelmät ovat yleisesti käytössä oleva tapa järjestää konsernin sisäinen kassanhallinta. Osakeyhtiölain näkökulmasta cash pooling –järjestelmissä on käytännössä kyse konsernin sisäisistä velka- ja saamissuhteista, joita arvioidaan yhtiöoikeudellisesti lähipiirilainoina. Lisäksi cash pooling –järjestelmien yhteydessä annetaan usein lähipiirivakuuksia. Lähipiirilainojen ja -vakuuksien laillisuutta osakeyhtiölain näkökulmasta arvioidaan ensisijaisesti yleisten yhtiöoikeudellisten periaatteiden perusteella. Cash pooling –järjestelmien näkökulmasta keskeisimpiä periaatteita ovat OYL 1:5:n yhtiön toiminnan tarkoitus, OYL 1:7:n yhdenvertaisuusperiaate sekä OYL 1:8:n johdon huolellisuusvelvollisuus. Lähipiirilainan ja –vakuuden antamiseen soveltuu myös OYL 13:1.3:n laittoman varojenjaon kielto, joka edellyttää, että lähipiirilainan tai –vakuuden antamiselle on liiketaloudellinen peruste. Cash pooling –järjestelmässä hyväksyttävä liiketaloudellinen peruste voi olla esimerkiksi lähipiirilainan tai –vakuuden antamisesta saatu korkotuotto, vastainen rahoitus, alentuneet pankkikulut tai muu yhtiön saama hyöty. Useimmiten cash pooling –järjestelmät ovat osakeyhtiölain näkökulmasta lähtökohtaisesti ongelmattomia niin kauan, kun kaikki konserniyhtiöt ovat maksukykyisiä. Lähipiirilainan tai –vakuuden antaminen cash pooling –järjestelmän puitteissa on riskialtista erityisesti, jos koko konserni tai joku järjestelmään osallistuvista konserniyhtiöistä on maksuvaikeuksissa. Tällöin cash pooling –järjestelmän sisällä annetut lähipiirilainat tai –vakuudet voivat olla osakeyhtiölain OYL 13:1.3:n perusteella laitonta varojenjakoa sen perusteella, ettei niiden antamiselle ole yhtiön näkökulmasta liiketaloudellista perustetta. Laittoman varojenjaon yhtiöoikeudellisina seuraamuksina voivat tulla kysymykseen oikeustoimen pätemättömyys OYL 6:28:n nojalla, OYL 13:4:n mukainen laittoman varojenjaon palautusvelvollisuus sekä vahingonkorvausvastuun osalta erityisesti yhtiön johtoa koskeva OYL 22:1:n säännös. Lähipiiritransaktioiden kohdalla johdon vahingonkorvausvastuuta on vielä tehostettu OYL 22:1.3:n tuottamusolettamalla.
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(2023)Tässä tutkielmassa perehdytään EU:n datatalouden sääntely-ympäristöön. Olemme keskellä digitaalista vallankumousta, joka on yli kahden vuosikymmenen intensiivisen kryptografian ja hajautetun tiedonkäsittelyn tutkimuksen tulos. Kehitys on synnyttänyt uraauurtavan teknologian: lohkoketjun. Lohkoketjuteknologia on hajautettu pääkirjajärjestelmä, joka mahdollistaa transaktioiden turvallisen ja muuttumattoman kirjaamisen tietoverkossa. Lisäksi lohkoketju helpottaa uusien hallintojärjestelmien luomista hajautettujen organisaatioiden avulla, jotka pystyvät toimimaan itsenäisesti tietokoneverkossa ilman ihmisen väliintuloa. Nämä innovatiiviset sovellukset ovat johtaneet vertailuihin lohkoketjun ja internetin välillä, mikä on taas ruokkinut ennusteita siitä, että tämä teknologia häiritsee keskitettyjen viranomaisten vaikutusvaltaa. Vastatakseen yhteiskunnassa tapahtuviin muutoksiin EU on ottanut käyttöön uuden toimintasuunnitelman, jonka tavoitteena on säännellä digitaalisia sisämarkkinoita. Lähtökohtana tässä tutkielmassa tarkastellaan uusia sääntelyjärjestelmiä ja esitellään lohkoketjuteknologioiden pääpiirteet (tunnetaan myös nimellä Distributed Ledger Technologies eli hajautetut kirjanpitoteknologiat), sekä tarkastellaan samalla niitä konkreettisia haasteita, joita tämä teknologia asettaa lainvalvonnalle. Sen jälkeen siirrytään kolmeen tapaustutkimukseen sääntely- ja käyttöesimerkkeinä. Ensimmäisessä tapaustutkimuksessa keskitytään lohkoketjun ja yleisen tietosuoja-asetuksen yhteensopivuuteen. Lohkoketjujen rakenne itsessään asettaa merkittäviä haasteita yhteensopivuudelle GDPR:n kanssa. Tämä johtuu lohkoketjuun tallennettujen tietojen muuttumattomuudesta, joka onkin yksi lohkoketjun keskeisistä ominaisuuksista. Toisessa tapaustutkimuksessa valotetaan sitten sitä, miten lohkoketjujärjestelmää voidaan hyödyntää immateriaalioikeuden yhteydessä, esimerkiksi teollis- ja tekijänoikeuksien rekisteröinnissä. Kolmannessa tapaustutkimuksessa tarkastellaan, miten lohkoketjua ja NFT:tä voidaan hyödyntää luovalla alalla, ja esitetään suosituksia havaittuihin haasteisiin.
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(2018)This Master's Thesis researches problematic aspects which EU Competition law faces when applying traditional static metrics, such as market shares, price levels and profit margins to digital markets. The thesis first introduces the reader to the subject, sets the framework and poses the research questions. It commences by outlining the restrictions in vertical agreements (vertical restraints) in traditional markets under EU Competition law and explains under which circumstances vertical agreements benefit from Vertical Block-Exemption Regulation. Further, the thesis shifts from traditional markets to digital markets. It first of all contrasts the distinctive structure and dynamic nature of digital markets, emergence of new business models, and the role of data in competition between platforms and lock-in effects. Furthermore, thesis discusses digital markets, in particular multi-sidedness of digital economy with two-sided transaction markets and two-sided non-transaction markets. It discusses the complexity of digital markets, problematics of market definition, in particular fluidness of market boundaries, substitutability of digital goods/services and zero pricing. It points out challenges which competition law faces in determining the relevant market and establishing infringements under Articles 101 and/or 102 of TFEU. Furthermore, thesis analyses a legality of imposition of vertical restriction (geo-blocking) in digital content distribution. It discusses whether imposition of geo-blocking restrictions in agreements unduly restricts competition and whether the restrictions in turn could be justified by the consumer efficiencies. It analyses the clash between fundamental freedom, i.e. freedom to provide services, restriction of competition in online content distribution and protection of legitimate rights under Copyright law. It also discusses whether these issues should be resolved by competition law or whether amendments of other fields of law, e.g. Copyright law, Data protection law or Consumer law is a more feasible solution. The thesis concludes with answering the research questions, in particular, which steps and in which order should competition authorities conduct their investigations. Thesis also concludes that under normal circumstances geo-blocking does not restrict competition in non-licensed territory, provided imposition of geo-blocking restriction does not facilitate absolute territorial protection.
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(2014)This thesis deals with two conflicting interests: the privacy of arbitration proceedings and the need for efficient judicial control. The question has been narrowed down to the most fundamental issue of all, review of the existence of a valid arbitration agreement. Arbitration is based on a private contract, a common will of the parties to renounce the right to have their disputes resolved in a court of law. Therefore, there can be no valid arbitration without a valid agreement to arbitrate. The way in which challenges to the jurisdiction of the arbitral tribunal are treated is a reflection of how much trust and leverage arbitrators are given in a specific system. Thus, the question of challenges to jurisdiction is linked to a larger question: the founding theories of arbitration. Many states have adapted their laws in order to attract international disputes. Instead of dealing with national considerations, states now enact legislation in the hopes of better catering for the needs of the international business community. The success of the UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration is an example of the popularity of arbitration-friendly statutes. Besides the Model Law, the study explores the provisions of French and Swedish arbitration laws in order to illustrate the consequences of opposite solutions to the same question, judicial review of competence/competence. The position of arbitration as the preferred method of dispute resolution in international commercial relationships can be attributed to the neutrality of the proceedings and the extensive enforceability of arbitral awards. Neutrality is attained through the fact that arbitration can take place in a state that is not home ground to either party. If neither party tries to hinder the arbitration, there is a possibility of the dispute remaining private throughout the proceedings. The arbitral award shall be final and carried out by the parties. Depending on the seat of arbitration and the law governing the proceedings, an objecting party may, however, have numerous possible ways in which to disrupt the proceedings and cause losses of time and money by commencing litigation in the neutral and thus foreign court. The benefits of arbitration, i.e. finality, swiftness, efficiency, adaptability, and secrecy, are quashed if one of the parties decides to bring about court action to delay the arbitral proceedings or to set aside the award. Inefficiency and loss of time due to judicial control are reasons that may discourage parties from choosing arbitration as their form of dispute resolution, or at least from choosing a certain state as the seat of arbitration. With this in mind, the paper will illustrate certain situations that parties choosing the seat of arbitration should consider.
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(2020)International refugee law is forced to adapt to the increase of externalized migration control. States no longer stick to migration control only at their national borders. Especially developed states have introduced various externalized migration control mechanisms – seeking to control the movement of migrants at every step of their journey. By such externalization, states aim to deter unwanted migrants. The presumption behind these practices is that through them, states can avoid the legal responsibilities that flow from international refugee law and especially the principle of non-refoulement. The enforcement of such practices often results in weakened protection for refugees. The control mechanisms are designed so that migrants are effectively denied access to areas where their rights would otherwise be substantially better than in those where they are forced to stay. The thesis deals with these mechanisms as conscious and strategic decisions made by developed states to keep unwanted migrants outside their legal responsibility. The overall objective of the thesis is to challenges the presumption of states, that they can evade responsibilities by outsourcing migration control to other states. It does so by analyzing the current legal regime on the extraterritorial application of non-refoulement and state jurisdiction. The question it answers is thus, when, if ever, does extraterritorial jurisdiction and state responsibility apply if externalized migration control mechanisms have been enforced? The thesis concludes that, although externalized migration control has become the rule rather than the exception, the current legal regime does not provide comprehensive protection for refugees. Extraterritorial jurisdiction under human rights law relies on effective control over territories or individuals; because externalized migration control mechanisms often outsource the control to third states, the jurisdictional link cannot necessarily be established between the individual and the state that enforces such mechanisms. Therefore, to protect refugees effectively the thesis argues that a contemporary understanding of the rules on extraterritorial jurisdiction should be adopted. It argues that states’ reliance on externalized migration control mechanisms can be challenged by adopting an additional basis for jurisdiction – jurisdiction based on the exercise of public powers abroad. It would decrease the attractiveness of externalized practices and increase the likelihood that states commit to fulfill them in a way that respects and guarantees protection for refugees.
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(2013)International arbitration is an integral element of the globalized modern economy. It is the principal method of resolving commercial disputes between States, individuals, and corporations in almost every aspect of international trade. Arbitration relies on the notion of party autonomy—that the parties to an agreement may freely choose the law applicable to their agreement and to the resolution of any dispute arising out of it. However, agreements have to be performed and arbitral awards rendered somewhere, and in the modern world in which the preeminent legal authority is the sovereign State, these actions necessarily occur under a legal framework and a public policy not shaped by the parties. When rules of public policy are implicated in the agreement underlying a dispute in arbitration—or in the award resulting from the for arbitration proceedings, a State must navigate between the Scylla and Charybdis of lending its authority to the recognition of an agreement or enforcement of an award contrary to its fundamental principles or of appearing not to respect the principle of finality of arbitral awards underpinning the system of modern international commerce. What route should national courts—the “watchmen of public policy”—choose? Should party autonomy cabined by respect for international public policy? Or should public policy be viewed as a safety valve utilized only in emergencies, where recognition and enforcement would be fundamentally at odds with a State’s most cherished principles and values? This thesis details the provisions for refusal of recognition or enforcement of arbitral awards on the grounds of public policy that currently exist in major international conventions and model legislation as well as in the legislation of the United States and selected European Union Member States. The various ways in which public policy can be understood is explained, and the application of the public policy exceptions in the United States and selected European Union Member States are detailed. Finally, trends in the United States and the European Union with respect to public policy and arbitration are examined.
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(2021)Hallintolain (434/2003) 8 § asettaa viranomaiselle neuvontavelvollisuuden. Tässä lainopillisessa tutkielmassa tarkastellaan yksityissektorilla toteutettujen chatbot-sovelluksien käyttöä osana viranomaisen neuvontaa Suomen perustuslain (731/1999) 124 §:n viitekehyksessä. Perustuslain 124 § asettaa edellytyksiä ja rajoittaa julkisen hallintotehtävän antamista muun kuin viranomaisen hoidettavaksi. Perustuslain 124 §:n soveltamisen määrittelee se, onko ulkoistettavassa tehtävässä kysymys julkisesta hallintotehtävästä. Siitä huolimatta perustuslaki esitöineen jättää julkisen hallintotehtävän määritelmän tulkinnanvaraiseksi. Perustuslakivaliokunta onkin perustuslain säätämisen jälkeen toistuvasti arvioinut perustuslain 124 §:n soveltamisalaa ja ottanut kantaa siihen, onko ulkoistamisen kohteena olevissa tehtävissä kyse julkisista hallintotehtävistä. Määritelmä kuitenkin elää yhteiskunnan kehityksen mukana. Hallinnon automatisaatio ja yksityissektorilla toteutettujen chatbot-sovelluksien käyttö julkisessa hallinnossa haastaa julkisen hallintotehtävän määritelmän uudelleen. Tutkielmassa tarkastellaan, missä määrin chatbot-sovelluksella toteutettavassa neuvonnassa on kyse julkisen hallintotehtävän hoitamisesta ja mitä edellytyksiä chatbot-sovelluksen ulkoistamiselle seuraa perustuslain 124 §:stä. Lisäksi tarkastellaan esiin nousevia sääntelytarpeita.
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(2020)Article 3(1) of the 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child requires that in all actions concerning children, whether undertaken by public or private social welfare institutions, courts of law, administrative authorities or legislative bodies, the best interests of the child shall be a primary consideration. Every Member State of the Council of Europe has ratified the Convention. The European Court of Human Rights has increasingly begun to refer to the Convention on the Rights of the Child and its Articles in cases concerning children and acknowledged that the best interests of the child are of particular importance. Especially Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights, which protects every individual’s right to respect for private and family life, home and correspondence without unjustified state interference, has been envisaged as having great potential in effectively promoting and protecting the rights of the child under the European Convention on Human Rights, which does not contain rights designed specifically for children on its own. However, the European Court of Human Rights has been criticised for failing to provide clear and coherent general principles in situations where the traditional obligations and principles under Article 8 owed to adult members of the family are to be balanced against the best interests of the child. The thesis addresses questions relating to how the national authorities succeed in striking a fair balance in specific circumstances between different interests at stake within the meaning of Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights and makes an assessment of these findings in relation to the requirements set out in Article 3(1) of the Convention on the Rights of the Child. The concept of the best interests of the child as stipulated in Article 3(1) of the CRC obliges national authorities to transparently explain how the best interests of the child have been identified, what they are considered to be and how they have been balanced against other interests. The best interests of the child also require that the child is involved in the proceedings affecting the child either by him or herself personally or through an independent representative. The European Court of Human Rights has acknowledged that the interests of the child and those of his or her parents might not always coincide and assessed whether national authorities have struck a fair balance between these interests by considering whether the authorities could have attempted to assist the family in some other way before taking the child into care or restricting contact with the child and adult. In assessing the adequacy of the national authorities’ balancing process, the Court also takes into account whether the authorities have obtained relevant opinions by professionals and experts, whether the procedural requirements inherent in Article 8 are met and whether the child is involved in the proceedings.
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(2020)This thesis analyzes Chinese regulation on reproductive rights. Since 1949, China’s policy on regulation of population has changed many times. The main reason behind the regulation is to coordinate with the economic and social development of China, as stated in China’s domestic laws. Though economic and social development is a legitimate aim, Chinese regulation of people’s reproductive rights may still violate international law, especially international human rights law. In the first chapter of the thesis, the author explains how Chinese reproductive rights are regulated, in order to present to the readers about the historical trace of family planning policy and provide a full picture of the ups and downs of the policy. By describing the history of China’s regulation of reproductive rights, readers may have a better understanding of the reason why China regulates people’s reproductive rights. In the second chapter, the author will discuss about China’s human rights standards and its regulation of reproductive rights. China, whose human rights standards are per se different from the western world such as the United States, usually defends itself with the human rights standards such as cultural relativism and communitarianism. With these kinds of human rights standards, the author tries to analyze if China’s regulation on reproductive rights is reasonable and if its choice of human rights standards justifies China’s regulation on reproductive rights. In the third chapter, the author will research on the legality of Chinese regulation on reproductive rights. This is the main part of the research. China has signed and ratified many international conventions and treaties which aim to protect reproductive rights and other related human rights t. In this part, the author will analyze whether China’s regulation on reproductive rights is in accordance to the international human rights law which is binding on China. In the last chapter, through the analysis of the above chapters, the author provides suggestions on how China should better comply with international law. For example, as an international trend, family planning now is becoming a human right instead of civic obligation. In order to fulfil its international obligations, China shall change its attitudes towards family planning and treat it as a service which is compulsory for the State to provide to its citizens.
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(2020)This Master thesis belongs to the project of the HELSUS Co-creation Lab. The project topic is about the circular economy and the challenge given by a HELSUS partner UPM-Kymmene Corporation to find opportunities for the circular economy business model from a legal perspective. As an international forest industry company, UPM has developed innovative ways to reduce its waste and to reuse its side in new products, and to use resources sustainably. Circular economy principles already applied in UPM, and develop and implement the technology and innovation of using wood in various new products. However, UPM wants to know what challenges and possibilities the regulations pose in creating new circular business opportunities? At the same time, this thesis chooses Germany and China for comparative research. Both countries have promulgated special circular economy legislation, established the 3R principles of reduce, reuse and recycle, stipulated extended producer responsibility systems, established waste recycling systems, and so on, aim to promote waste treatment and resource recycling legal system. However, the circular economy legal system of these two countries have apparent differences in legislative models, legislative purposes, and institutional arrangements. So, there are two purposes for writing this essay. First, explaining the historical evolution of the circular economy legal system in Germany and China, the objective is to understand the historical evolution of the circular economy law in two counties. Second, evaluative whether they are under circular economic aims in comparative research, the purpose of the comparison is not to determine which country's laws are more suitable for creating new business opportunities. It is to find out the challenges and possibilities of creating new circular business opportunities for UPM. Therefore, the research question is about: What are the challenges and possibilities of creating new business opportunities for UPM when compares the circular economy legal system between Germany and China?
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(2013)Tutkielman aiheena on vahingonkorvausvastuun laajuus kansainvälisessä irtaimen kaupassa. Tavoitteena on selvittää, kuinka laajaksi CISG:n mukainen vahingonkorvausvastuu voi muodostua. Tarkastelun kohteena ovat kansainvälistä tavaran kauppaa koskevista sopimuksista annetun yleissopimuksen eli CISG:n säännökset ja erityisesti sen 74 artikla. CISG 74 artikla sisältää säännöt vahingonkorvauksen laskemiseksi. Se perustuu täyden korvauksen periaatteelle, jonka mukaan vahingonkorvaus kattaa sen rahamäärän, joka vastaa sopimusrikkomuksen vuoksi toiselle osapuolelle aiheutunutta vahinkoa. Vahingonkorvauksen määrää kuitenkin rajoittaa CISG 74 artiklaan sisältyvä vahinkojen ennakoitavuuden vaatimus. Tutkielmassa esitetään, että vahingonkorvausvastuun laajuuden määrittäminen on tulkinnanvaraista ja siihen liittyy monia epävarmuustekijöitä. Epäselvää on ensinnäkin se, minkälaista yhteyttä sopimusrikkomuksen ja vahingon välillä edellytetään. CISG 74 artiklan mukaan vahingon on tullut aiheutua sopimusrikkomuksen vuoksi. Silti oikeuskirjallisuudessa on esitetty erilaisia näkemyksiä siitä, mitä vaatimus tarkoittaa ja onko CISG:n puitteissa tarvetta soveltaa varsinaisia syy-yhteysteorioita. Toiseksi epävarmuutta syntyy siitä, että vahinkotyypillä voi olla merkitystä korvattavuuden kannalta, vaikka vahinkotyyppejä ei ole määritelty CISG:ssä. Myös sopimuksiin sisällytettävät vastuunrajoitusehdot perustuvat usein vahinkotyyppiluokitteluihin, vaikka eri vahinkotyyppien määritelmät eivät ole kansainvälisesti vakiintuneet. Kolmas epävarmuutta aiheuttava vahingonkorvauksen laajuuteen liittyvä tekijä on varsinaisena vastuunrajoitusmekanismina toimiva vahinkojen ennakoitavuuden vaatimus. Sen mukaan vahingonkorvaus ei saa olla suurempi kuin se vahinko, jonka sopimusta rikkonut osapuoli sopimusta tehtäessä ennakoi tai jonka hänen olisi pitänyt ennakoida voivan mahdollisesti seurata sopimusrikkomuksesta. Ennakoitavuuden arvioinnissa esiintyy kuitenkin paljon hajontaa. Vahingonkorvausvastuun laajuuden kannalta merkityksellistä on erityisesti se, että oikeustila on epäselvä sen suhteen, minkä pitää tarkalleen ottaen olla ennakoitavissa. Näkemykset eroavat ainakin siitä, onko kyse vahinkotyypin, vahingon laajuuden vai vahinkojen yhteenlasketun summan ennakoitavuudesta. Tutkielmassa on tarkasteltu erikseen muulle kuin myydylle omaisuudelle aiheutuneiden tuotevahinkojen korvattavuutta CISG:n mukaan. Vahingonkorvausvastuun laajuuteen liittyvät epävarmuudet korostuvat niiden kohdalla, mikä voi johtua muun muassa siitä, ettei CISG sisällä erillisiä sääntöjä tuotevahingoista. Ainoa viittaus tuotevahinkoihin sisältyy CISG 5 artiklaan, jossa todetaan, ettei CISG koske myyjän vastuuta tavaran aiheuttamasta henkilön kuolemasta tai henkilövahingosta. Oikeuskirjallisuudessa ja oikeuskäytännössä on kuitenkin vahvistettu, että muulle kuin myydylle tavaralle aiheutuneiden esinevahinkojen korvattavuutta arvioidaan CISG:n sääntöjen mukaan. Kirjallisuudessa on silti katsottu, että vahinkojen ennakoitavuuden vaatimus soveltuu huonosti kyseisten vahinkojen laajuuden määrittämiseen. Toinen ongelma on se, miten CISG 74 artiklaa sovellettaessa pitäisi suhtautua suhteettoman suuriin vahinkoihin, jollaisia tuotevahingot usein ovat. CISG ei nimittäin sisällä suhteellisuusperiaatetta tai muunlaista sääntöä vahingonkorvauksen määrän kohtuullistamisesta tai sovittelusta. Lopuksi tutkielmassa pyritään selvittämään, miten vahingonkorvausvastuun laajuuden epävarmuudesta johtuvia riskejä voidaan hallita. Tutkielmassa esitetään, että korvausvastuuriskin hallinnassa avainasemassa on ennakollinen toiminta. Yritysten tulee varmistaa, että niiden sopimustoiminta on systemaattista ja laadukasta. Standardisopimukset ja erilaiset menettelyohjeet tulee pitää ajan tasalla ja samoin on huolehdittava henkilökunnan koulutuksesta. Kun nämä prosessit ovat kunnossa, vastuuriskejä on mahdollista hallita yksittäisissä sopimuksissa. Paras keino torjua CISG:n epäselvyydestä ja tulkinnanvaraisuudesta aiheutuvia ongelmia on huolellisesti laadittu sopimus. Kyseeseen voivat tulla yrityksen omat sopimusehdot tai esimerkiksi alakohtaiset vakioehdot.
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(2024)Uhanalaisten lajien kansainvälistä kauppaa pidetään yhtenä merkittävimpänä luontokadon aiheuttajana ja luonnon monimuotoisuuden uhkaajana. Kauppaa rajoittamaan solmittiin vuonna 1973 uhanalaisten lajien kansainvälistä kauppaa koskeva CITES-sopimus (The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora). Sopimukseen kuuluu kolme liitettä, joiden sisältämien kasvi- ja eläinlajien kauppa on luvanvaraista tai kielletty kokonaan niiden uhanalaisuuden asteen mukaisesti. Suomi liittyi CITES-sopimukseen vuonna 1976. Sopimuksen vastaiset teot on kriminalisoitu Suomessa luonnonsuojelurikkomuksena ja luonnonsuojelurikoksena. Tutkielman tarkoituksena on selvittää suomalaista tuomioistuinkäytäntöä laadullisesti tutkimalla, millä tavalla CITES-sopimusta on sovellettu luonnonsuojelurikostuomioissa. Tutkimuksessa vastataan myös kysymykseen siitä, millaisia johtopäätöksiä uhanalaisten lajien kaupasta Suomessa voidaan tuomioistuinkäytännön perusteella tehdä. Vaikka CITES-sopimusta pidetään kansainvälisen luonnonsuojeluoikeuden uranuurtajana, sitä kohtaan on esitetty runsaasti kritiikkiä. Osa kritiikistä on yhdistettävissä suomalaiseen oikeuskäytäntöön, esimerkiksi rikosten matalat sakkorangaistukset ja tuomioistuinten yhtenäisen linjan puuttuminen. Matalien rangaistusten lisäksi tutkimuksen kohteena olevat tuomiot poikkeavat toisistaan luonnonsuojelullisen merkityksen arvioinnissa ja menettämisseuraamusten soveltamisessa. Suomessa ei vaikuta olevan yhtenäistä linjaa CITES-sopimuksen rikkomisesta annettujen rangaistusten suhteen. CITES-sopimuksen ympäristöoikeudelliset taustat ja tavoitteet huomioiden kansallinen rikosprosessimme ei täysin vastaa sopimuksen asettamiin tavoitteisiin. Valtaosa luonnonsuojelurikoksista on piilorikollisuutta, johon puuttuminen vaatii laajaa osaamista niin viranomaisilta kuin tuomioistuimiltakin. CITES-sopimuksen luonnonsuojelullista merkitystä ei ole tunnistettu kaikissa tuomioistuimissa, eivätkä matalat sakkorangaistukset toimi sopimuksen tarkoittamalla ennalta estävällä tavalla.
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(2014)Tutkielmani aiheena on click- ja browse-wrap -sopimustekniikat. Tekniikoita käytetään internetissä tapahtuvassa sähköisessä sopimisessa. Tutkielmassani tarkastelen, kuinka tekniikat ovat suhteutettavissa yleisiin sopimusoikeudellisiin oppeihin sekä sitä, kuinka näitä tekniikoita käyttäen laadittuihin sopimuksiin on toistaiseksi oikeuskäytännössä ja -kirjallisuudessa suhtauduttu.Tutkielmassani sivuan myös shrink-wrap -sopimustekniikkaa sen ollessa tutkielmani sopimustekniikoiden edeltäjä. Sen merkitys on kuitenkin vähentynyt sitä mukaa, kun ohjelmistomyynti on siirtynyt enemmän internetiin, missä ohjelmistot levitetään fyysisen muodon sijaan bitteinä. Click-wrap -sopimus perustuu tekniikalle, jossa sopimuskumppani ilmaisee sopimustahtonsa klikkaamalla sopimusehtojen hyväksymistä indikoivaa painiketta. Tekniikka on yleinen erityisesti ohjelmistojen sähköisessä lisensoinnissa sekä rekisteröitymistä edellyttävissä palveluissa. Browse-wrap -sopimustekniikka on tavallinen menetelmä sitouttaa sopimuskumppani sivuston tai palvelun käyttöehtoihin. Sopimusehtojen hyväksyminen perustuu sopimuskumppanin konkludenttiseen tahdonilmaisuun, joka ilmenee internetsivua selaamalla. Browse-wrap -sopimustekniikalle tunnusomaista on, ettei ehtoihin sopimuksentekotilanteessa nimenomaisesti viitata, vaan ehdot ovat internetsivulla esimerkiksi linkin takana, jossa sopimuskumppanin katsotaan voivan niihin tutustua. Tutkielma on pitkälti de lege ferenda -tutkimusta, jota tuen oikeusvertailevalla näkökulmalla tuomalla esille pohjoismaisessa ja yhdysvaltalaisessa oikeuskirjallisuudessa ja -käytännössä omaksuttuja ratkaisu- ja tulkintavaihtoehtoja. Pohjoismaisessa oikeuskäytännössä ei toistaiseksi ole ratkottu tutkielmani sopimustekniikoita koskevia tapauksia. Esittelen silti muutaman relevantin pohjoismaisen oikeustapauksen, sillä niiden perusteluista on mahdollista johtaa tulkinta-argumentteja tutkielmani sopimustekniikoita koskeviin riitaisuuksiin. Pohjoismaisen oikeuskäytännön puuttuessa yhdysvaltalainen oikeuskäytäntö on tutkielmassa merkittävässä osassa. Yhdysvalloissa ratkaisukäytäntö ulottuu 1990-luvulle asti ja yhdysvaltalaisten tapausten pohjalta on mahdollista vetää johtopäätöksiä tutkielmani sopimustekniikoiden tulkintaa koskien. Esiteltävän kirjallisuuden ja oikeustapausten perusteella tuon esille sopimustekniikoita koskevia näkökulmia ja ongelmakohtia sekä eri tulkinta-argumentteja sopimustekniikoihin liittyen. Pohjoismaisessa oikeuskirjallisuudessa kannanotot molempia tekniikoita koskien ovat olleet vaihtelevia, eikä täysin yhtenäistä linjausta voida esittää edes click-wrap -sopimustekniikan osalta. Click-wrap -sopimustekniikkaan on silti yleisesti suhtauduttu hyväksyvästi, sillä se voidaan helposti yhteensovittaa yleisten sopimusoikeudellisten oppien kanssa. Tekniikalla laadittuja sopimusehtoja koskevat riitaisuudet koskevat täten lähtökohtaisesti enemmän yksittäisten sopimusehtojen pätevyyttä kuin itse ehtokokonaisuuden sopimuksen osaksi tulemista. Browse-wrap -sopimustekniikka on ominaisuuksiensa takia sopimuksen syntyä ajatellen ongelmallisempi erityisesti ottaen huomioon ehtoihin viittaamisen, niiden liitynnän itse sopimukseen sekä tutustumismahdollisuuden olemassaolon. Browse-wrap -sopimustekniikasta on pohjoismaissa kirjoitettu hyvin vähäisesti, mutta tutkimukseni perusteella konsensus on, että lähtökohtaisesti tekniikalla on olennaisesti vaikeampaa solmia sitova sopimus kuin click-wrap -sopimustekniikalla - sanottua tukee myös yhdysvaltalainen oikeuskäytäntö.
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(2019)This thesis deals with the questions on whether it would be possible to consider the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR), more precisely Article 2 (the right to life) and Article 8 (the right to private and family life), to impose positive obligations on its Member States to prevent climate change and whether a Member State failing to prevent climate change sufficiently could be considered violating the ECHR. Climate change is a human rights issue. The effects of climate change are projected to interfere with the enjoyment of most, if not all, human rights, if further dangerous climate change is not prevented. Despite this fact, neither the international community, nor national states, have been able to address and prevent climate change sufficiently. As a counteraction to these failures, civil society has attempted to take the matter into its own hands, and turned to so-called climate change litigation as a possible solution to prevent further climate change. What first seemed impossible, holding a State liable for not preventing climate change sufficiently, was recently achieved on a domestic level. In October 2018, the Dutch Appeal Court interpreted Article 2 and 8 of the ECHR to create a positive obligation to prevent climate change and found the Dutch state, due to its insufficient climate policies, to be in breach with such obligation. This groundbreaking case created ripples on the water, and several climate change litigation cases have since then emerged around the world. The aim of this thesis has been to consider the potential and limitations of bringing a climate change case in the context of the ECHR and European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR). This thesis has considered if there is foundation to argue that Article 2 and 8 of the ECHR impose a positive obligation on its Member States to prevent climate change (research question 1). This was done by turning to the existing positive ‘environmental’ obligations that have been developed by the ECtHR, without the right to a ‘healthy environment’ or similar being enshrined in the ECHR. An analogy between the existing green jurisprudence and its positive obligations and climate change was attempted. Although encountering some difficulties, it was concluded that there is foundation to argue that climate change and its effects both are within a State’s awareness and to be considered a real and immediate threat, thus creating a positive obligation on States to prevent further climate change. In other words, the first research question of this thesis was answered with cautious optimism. This thesis has also considered if a State failing to prevent climate change sufficiently could be considered in violation with Article 2 and 8 of the ECHR (research question 2). In order to answer this question, some of the challenges a climate change case would face were presented. It was noted that a climate change case, in particular framed from a preventative angle, would have a difficult time even passing the admissibility stage, as it is likely that such an application would be considered actio popularis and not fulfil the victim status required. In addition, the doctrine of margin of appreciation, which generally is considered wide in the context of the environment, was perceived as a major obstacle, which a climate change case most likely would not be able to overcome. In addition, causality and uncertainty, generally being known to create difficulties for climate change cases, would also be challenging in the context of the ECHR and ECtHR. However, it was also noted that the ECHR is to be interpreted as a living instrument in the light of present-day conditions. It was considered that the doctrine of living interpretation could provide somewhat of an avenue for the ECtHR to take a more activist approach, and adapt a more evolutive interpretation. This could provide a solution to at least some of the challenges a climate change would face. It was, however, also noted that utilising the doctrine to its max, might come with consequences that may have negative impacts on the legitimacy of the ECtHR. Thus, the conclusion was that based on a traditional interpretation on the ECHR and existing case law, it would be unlikely fhat the ECtHR would consider the failure to prevent climate change sufficiently to constitute a violation of Article 2 and 8. In other words, the second research question was answered negatively. In conclusion, this thesis argues that there is foundation to consider that Article 2 and 8 of the ECHR could impose a positive obligation to prevent climate change, whilst it would be unlikely that the ECtHR would consider a State, failing to prevent climate change sufficiently, to be in violation with such obligation.
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