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Tämä tutkielma käsittelee palauttamiskielto-periaatteen sisältöä kolmessa eri ihmisoikeussopimuksessa. Palauttamiskielto-periaate liittyy pakolaisoikeuteen, mutta sitä toteuttaa nykyisin myös yleiset ihmisoikeussopimukset. Valitut kolme ihmisoikeussopimusta ovat sopimus pakolaisten oikeudellisesta asemasta (1951, myöhemmin YK:n pakolaissopimus), Euroopan ihmisoikeussopimus (1950, myöhemmin EIS) ja kidutuksen ja muun julman, epäinhimillisen ja halventavan kohtelun tai rangaistuksen vastainen yleissopimus (1984, myöhemmin KVY). Ensimmäinen ja viimeinen sopimus ovat YK:n alaisuudessa solmittuja sopimuksia, kun taas keskimmäinen sopimus on Euroopan neuvoston alainen. Palauttamiskielto-periaate merkitsee pääpiirteissään sitä, että henkilöä ei saada siirtää pois maasta, jos häntä siirron kohteena olevalla alueella kohtaisi perusteltu riski vainosta, kidutuksesta taikka epäinhimillisestä tai alentavasta kohtelusta tai rangaistuksesta. YK:n yleissopimus suojaa henkilöä vainolta ja koskee henkilöitä, jotka ovat kotimaansa ulkopuolella eli sillä on selvin kytkös pakolaisiin. EIS suojaa kaikkia henkilöitä kotimaassa olemisesta riippumatta, ja sen tarjoama suoja kattaa niin kidutuksen kuin epäinhimillisen tai halventavan kohtelun tai rangaistuksen. KVY suojaa samaten kaikkia henkilöitä kotimaassa olemisesta riippumatta, mutta sen tarjoama suoja kattaa vain kidutuksen. Työssä on eroteltu periaatteen sisällöstä eri osa-alueita, jotka ovat suojan alueellinen ja henkilöllinen kattavuus, kielletyn kohtelun sisältö, riskiä koskeva harkinta ja periaatteen absoluuttinen luonne. Näitä osa-alueita käsitellään sekä kussakin sopimuksessa erikseen, että sopimuksia vertailevasti. Täten tarkoituksena on selvittää periaatteen sisältöä kussakin sopimuksessa huomioiden mahdollisia eroja ja yhtäläisyyksiä sekä aukkoja suojelussa, jota periaate etenkin pakolaisille tarjoaa.

Combinatorial optimization problems arise in many applications. Finding solutions that are as good as possible, ideally optimal, respect to given criteria is important. Additionally, many real-world combinatorial optimization problems are NP-hard. The so-called declarative approach to solving combinatorial optimization problems has proven to be successful in practice. In this work we focus on the the implicit hitting set-based (IHS) maximum satisfiability (MaxSAT) paradigm to solving combinatorial optimization problems declaratively. In the MaxSAT paradigm the problem at hand is formulated as a linear objective function to minimize subject to a set of constraints expressed in the language of propositional logic. In the IHS approach the problem is solved by alternating calls to two subroutines. An optimizer procedure computes optimal solutions over the variables in the objective function without the constraints available and a feasibility oracle verifies the solutions in terms of the constraints. In this work we study alternative divisions of constraints of a given problem formulation between the optimizer and the oracle. We allow the optimizer to compute solutions over any variables of the problem instance, thus extending the hitting set formulations of the IHS-based MaxSAT. We focus on two specific combinatorial optimization problems and existing MaxSAT encodings of these problems. The problems focus on are computing the treewidth of a graph and finding an optimal k-undercover Boolean matrix factorization. We have also extended a state-of-the-art IHS-based MaxSAT solver to support extended divisions of encodings and provide the implementation as open source.

In this thesis we study extension results related to compact bilinear operators in the setting of interpolation theory and more specifically the complex interpolation method, as introduced by Calderón. We say that: 1. the bilinear operator T is compact if it maps bounded sets to sets of compact closure. 2.\bar{ A} = (A_0,A_1) is a Banach couple if A_0,A_1 are Banach spaces that are continuously embedded in the same Hausdorff topological vector space. Moreover, if (Ω,\mathcal{A}, μ) is a σ-finite measure space, we say that: 3. E is a Banach function space if E is a Banach space of scalar-valued functions defined on Ω that are finite μ-a.e. and so that the norm of E is related to the measure μ in an appropriate way. 4. the Banach function space E has absolutely continuous norm if for any function f ∈ E and for any sequence (Γ_n)_{n=1}^{+∞}⊂ \mathcal{A} satisfying χ_{Γn} → 0 μ-a.e. we have that ∥f · χ_{Γ_n}∥_E → 0. Assume that \bar{A} and \bar{B} are Banach couples, \bar{E} is a couple of Banach function spaces on Ω, θ ∈ (0, 1) and E_0 has absolutely continuous norm. If the bilinear operator T : (A_0 ∩ A_1) × (B_0 ∩ B_1) → E_0 ∩ E_1 satisfies a certain boundedness assumption and T : \tilde{A_0} × \tilde{B_0} → E_0 compactly, we show that T may be uniquely extended to a compact bilinear operator T : [A_0,A_1]_θ × [B_0,B_1]_θ → [E_0,E_1]_θ where \tilde{A_j} denotes the closure of A_0 ∩ A_1 in A_j and [A_0,A_1]_θ denotes the complex interpolation space generated by \bar{A}. The proof of this result comes after we study the case where the couple of Banach function spaces is replaced by a single Banach space.

The importance of universities providing quality-assurance schemes has increased during the last two decades due to, among other things, an increased tendency in public administration to use evaluations as a tool to enhance efficiency and the changed nature of the state-university relationship. Moreover, we can witness an increased integration of European higher education. Also Finnish higher education has been exposed to these trends and external evaluation and quality assurance systems has become a recurring phenomenon. The objective of this research was to analyse organizational responses at universities to the demand of showing a QA-scheme, and to increase understanding on the role of audits in relation to national and supranational developments, from a perspective of organizational intuitionalism. In so doing, attention is put on what kinds of effects and practices a national form of evaluation has, if compared at the organizational level of two universities. The methodological approach builds on insights from qualitative methods, new-institutional theory and organizational institutionalism. The empirical materials used consisted of documents and half-structured interviews. The interviews were transcribed and analysed through the creation of reference codes in the program ATLAS TI. The reference codes were created according to logics of analytic coding. In the research, four core themes were witnessed. First, in implementing processes or reforms that might be perceived critically in universities, the role of commitment and semantics become of high importance, as does a degree of hierarchy. Second, responding to the demand of showing a quality assurance-scheme and succeeding in audits are not seen to be of high importance by university leadership in that only scarce resources were allocated to the exercise. Third, developing the QA-system was clearly accepted to be a response to European developments but this is hardly an instrument for governance that the Ministry of Education would value in comparison to other instruments. Finally, the recommendations made by the audit teams are not as neutral as they seem, in that they do define what the Universities should accomplish. However, the loosely coupled structure has in many ways lessened many of the impacts and recommendation gained from the audits.

Oat β-glucan is well known for its health benefits, which are related to its rheological behavior in the gut. The objective of this thesis was to investigate the extractability and viscosity of β-glucan from oat bread under physiological conditions and to see whether there were varietal differences. Oat flours of twenty different cultivars were used to bake breads which were subjected to in vitro digestion. The resulting extracts were studied for viscosity using a rheometer, and the β-glucan contents of the breads and the extracts were determined to evaluate the extractability. In addition, the effect of flour particle size on extractability was investigated. Variance in the in vitro extractability of β-glucan was seen between cultivars, which was not explained by flour particle size. All samples produced highly viscous extracts, and the viscosities increased sharply with increasing β-glucan concentration, which suggests that the β-glucan was not extensively degraded during the breadmaking process. The viscosities also varied between cultivars, as some exhibited considerably higher viscosities at similar concentrations. The results indicate that the β-glucan from the oat breads would have good capacity to increase viscosity in the intestine, although varietal differences were observed.

Tutkielma käsittelee opin Kirkon välttämättömyydestä pelastukselle kehitystä Vatikaanin toisen kirkolliskokouksen (1962–1965) asiakirjoissa. Opin kehitystä tarkastellaan verraten kirkolliskokouksen aiheesta lausumia seikkoja sellaisiin aiempiin katolisen kirkon oppilausumiin, joita voidaan pitää kirkon virallisena opin julistuksena. Keskeinen tutkimuskysymys on, voidaanko äkkiseltään tarkasteltuna suurehkolta vaikuttava muutos katolisen kirkon suhtautumisessa oman näkyvän rakenteensa ulkopuolisiin pelastusväyliin nähdä loogisena opinkehityksenä 200-luvulta lähtien esiintyvälle kirkon ulkopuolella ei ole pelastusta -oppilausumalle. Toisin sanoen kysymyksenä on, voidaanko tästä silminnähden huomattavasta muutoksesta huolimatta johdonmukaisesti väittää, että opin ydin on pysynyt samana eikä sanan varsinaisessa mielessä muuttunut? Tutkielman aineisto koostuu Vatikaanin toisen kirkolliskokouksen konstituutiosta Lumen Gentium, dekreeteistä Ad Gentes ja Unitatis Redintegratio sekä julistuksesta Nostra Aetate, jotka jokainen omasta kulmastaan ottavat kantaa Kirkon ulkopuoliseen pelastukseen. Menetelmänä on poimia jokaisesta dokumentista vain aiheeseen liittyvät kohdat ja jäsennellä ne loogiseksi kokonaisuudeksi, jotta muodostuisi käsitys siitä, mitä kirkolliskokous aiheesta sanoi. Tätä verrataan aiempaan katoliseen opetukseen, ja lopuksi pohditaan kirjallisuuteen tukeutuen, onko Vatikaani II mahdollista yhteensovittaa sen kanssa tutkimuskysymyksen tarkoittamalla tavalla. Tutkimustuloksena ilmenee, että on vaikeaa uskottavasti selittää jotain niin valtaisaa pelastusopillista siirtymää kuin Vatikaani II:ssa Kirkon ulkopuolisen pelastuksen suhteen tapahtui, pelkäksi opin kehitykseksi vailla opin ytimen muutosta. Huolimatta Kirkon sinänsä merkittävän monipuolisesta opetuksesta jo ennen Vatikaanin II kirkolliskokousta sekä erinäisistä historiallis-kulttuurisista tekijöistä, jotka auttavat ymmärtämään kirkon ulkopuolella ei ole pelastusta -oppilausuman jyrkkyyttä, sen konkreettista sanamuotoa on hankala selittää pois. Tutkielma päätyy ratkaisuehdotuksenaan esittämään kysymyksen, olisiko mahdollista luoda toimiva katolinen systeemi, jossa Kirkko voisi tunnustaa erehtyneensä historiallisissa oppilausumissaan.

The European Court of Human Rights has brought a revolutionary aspect to the extraterritorial application of its Convention by extending it to cover the state parties’ actions abroad. By opening the door to the application of the European Convention on Human Rights to activities of a member state beyond its territorial borders, the Court has changed its case-law practice from more restrictive to more allowing. The major authority on the extraterritorial application of the ECHR has thus far been the Bankovi? v Belgium case from 2001. In Bankovi? the Court decided on the claims against 17 NATO states for the bombardments in Yugoslavia in 1999. The Court dismissed the claims on the basis of jurisdiction as it held that the jurisdictional threshold of Article 1 of the ECHR was not met. Contrary to Bankovi?, the Court decided on Al-Skeini and Al-Jedda positively on the application of the Convention outside of its direct territory. This is a big change in the practice and will have an even bigger impact on the states and thus it is now time to reevaluate the issue in light of these new cases. The incoherence of the Court’s judgments places the states, and individuals, in an unpredictable world as the meaning of ‘within their jurisdiction’ as set out in Article 1 of the Convention remains controversial. The two identities of the Convention as a regional, European instrument and as a universal human rights mechanism create a challenging relationship. This thesis explores the change in the Court’s interpretation views through the case law concerning the extraterritorial application of the ECHR. For a global comparison other human rights treaties and their jurisdiction clauses are reviewed in order to evaluate the status quo in this field and the impacts on states’ actions and respective policies thereof. The Article 1 plays a fundamental role in this context and thus it is reflected throughout the thesis.

This thesis addresses the role of home states in relation to extraterritorial human rights violations committed by their corporate nationals, more specifically transnational corporations (TNCs). This thesis examines the difficulties of holding TNCs directly accountable for the violations they commit. Secondly, this thesis explores whether and to what extent home states of TNCs can become responsible for extraterritorial human rights violations committed by TNCs domiciled in their territories. This thesis approaches the issue of home state responsibility from two separate points of view namely the law on state responsibility and international human rights law. Growing corporate power and its possible detrimental impact on the enjoyment of human rights has not gone unnoticed. TNCs’ corporate structures are as the name says, transnational, and their operations are commonly global. This in turn leads to a situation in which the operations of a TNC existing under the laws of one state may impact the lives of people located in other the countries hosting the operations of the TNC. Although some attempts have been made in the international legal sphere to keep corporations directly accountable for the human rights violations they commit, under the current state of international law, no legally binding provisions exist to keep corporations directly accountable. Focus has therefore been on states’ obligations to ensure the adequate protection of human rights and this thesis stresses the obligations of the home state. The two separate approaches to state responsibility examined in this thesis are built on very different premises. Firstly, the law of state responsibility provides the circumstances pursuant to which the acts of TNCs can become attributable to the home state as an act of state. As a general rule, private acts are not automatically imputable to the state, but may under certain circumstances be considered as such. This thesis explores the exemptions to this basic rule of non-attribution and the conditions when a state can be held responsible for the acts of TNCs. Pursuant to the rules of state responsibility, acts of TNCs may become attributable to the home state in four situations, namely when the TNC has the status of an organ of the state de facto or de jure; when the TNC has been authorized to exercise governmental authority; when the TNC has acted under the instructions, direction or control of the state and when the home state acknowledges and adopts the conduct as its own. However, as this thesis demonstrates the criteria for attribution of TNCs’ conduct to the state are rather strict and the practical usefulness of the law of state responsibility for the purposes of keeping home states responsible for human rights abuse is rather speculative. The second approach adopted in this thesis finds its basis in human rights law. It is widely acknowledged that states are under an obligation to respect, protect and fulfil human rights. Of these three aspects, the obligation to protect is central to this thesis as it concerns the state’s duty to protect human rights of individuals from infringements of non-state actors such as TNCs. The positive duties to protect human rights have traditionally been perceived to apply in the domestic territories of the state, and this thesis examines whether the home states of a TNC can be under an obligation to extend this protection to the human rights of people in third states and thus to control their corporate nationals by means of e.g. legislation. The recent developments in this field signal of a willingness to recognize and strengthen the duties of home states’ extraterritorial obligations. This is perhaps due to the fact that recent initiatives have on the one hand abandoned the idea of direct corporate accountability and relied solely on the permissibility of home state regulation, which is insufficient and gives rise to governance gaps. However, the work of various human rights treaty bodies signal of the possibility of recognizing such home state obligations and is also discussed in this thesis. Conclusively, the discussion in this thesis provides that home states can incur state responsibility under certain rather strict conditions. The conclusions also highlight that of the two approaches addressed in this thesis, international human rights law is perhaps a better tool in this regard. Nevertheless, the existence of legally binding norms is still an unresolved matter. Therefore the conclusions of this thesis observe the need to clarify the precise scope of the extraterritorial obligations of home states with regard to control of TNCs.

Already since the 1980’s, in order to combat irregular immigration states have emphasized controlling immigration at source, also with the assistance of private actors. One of the oldest of these extraterritorialization and privatization methods is carrier sanction legislation, which imposes document control activities to transport companies by threatening them with financial penalties. This method is nowadays endorsed in several international conventions. The downside of the extraterritorial border control is its severe implications on refugee protection. Refugees are often unable to obtain the proper travel documents and therefore cannot resort to international protection. However, due to states’ growing control over their borders and on the other hand detrimental effect on refugees, the scope of the human rights and refugee rights obligations has come under debate. This thesis is participating in the discussion by evaluating can the norms of refugee and human rights protection apply extraterritorially, and if yes, can carriers’ border control actions breach these rights or are refugees’ rights already taken into account efficiently. Refugee rights and human rights obligations rise from international and regional conventions, which impose obligations mainly to the sovereign states. Thus, the first issue in establishing responsibility is whether carriers’ conduct could be attributed to the state according to the customary rules of international law codified in Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts. Secondly, the scope of the international obligations must be established. Carrier sanctions have been widely criticized for circumventing the non-refoulement principle recognized in the Refugee Convention and several human rights treaties and also described as the cornerstone of refugee protection. Besides, the carrier sanctions affect the obligation not to penalize refugees for illegal entry recognized in Refugee Convention, right to leave a country and the right to seek asylum. However, whether these obligations apply only on the territory of the state or also in the situations of extraterritorially is not always crystal clear. Even if state´s obligations could apply extraterritorially, states can clearly be responsible only for violations they can impact on. Thus, the third threshold of state´s extraterritorial responsibility is establishing extraterritorial jurisdiction. There is no case law on attribution of carrier’s actions to states and creation of extraterritorial jurisdiction is still an exceptional thing applied inconsistently by different courts. In cases where the attribution is not possible or jurisdictional link is weak, the last chapter of this work discusses if states’ human rights due diligence obligation could still provide a layer of protection and mitigate the negative effects on refugees. Accepting extraterritorial effects on refugee protection would have massive effects on the Western states asylum regimes. It would also create problems targeting responsibility between states and increase the phenomenon of jurisdiction shopping. On the other hand, states’ extraterritorial control might create a human rights vacuum where persons are artificially blocked from protection.

New alternatives for meat as the main source of protein are needed due to the negative impact of meat production on the environment and its high utilization of land sources. Vegetable proteins offer a more sustainable choice for meat and they can be processed into a structure that resembles meat using extrusion technology. The aim of this study was to produce a minced meat analogue using extrusion technology. The goal was to gain more information on the textural properties, colour and sensorial features of the meat analogue. In the experimental part, extrudates with replicates were produced from plant protein and fibre concentrate. Three differently processed samples were analysed. Texture analyser was used to measure the gumminess, springiness, chewiness, hardness, adhesiveness and shear energy of the samples. In addition, colour and moisture content were measured and a sensory experiment was conducted. According to the results, the content of the plant protein and fibre concentrate affected the textural properties and the colour of the samples. The results also showed that the composition of minced meat analogue had different effect on the textural properties depending how the sample was processed. In the sensory experiment, the reference sample (minced meat) had significantly higher score of pleasantness compared to extrudate containing samples. No significant differences were observed among the extrudate containing samples. This study showed that a product with some similarities to minced meat can be produced using extrusion technology with plant protein and fibre concentrate. For the development of the meat analogue, a more comprehensive sensory analysis would help to gain more information about the development targets of the product.