Browsing by Subject "Itämeri"

The Baltic Sea area, formerly an importer of crude oil, has become an important node for oil export. In 2015, between 160 and 240 million tons of oil (and some 150 million tons of other cargo) will be transported through the Gulf of Finland only, in 2006, 140 million tons of oil was shipped through the Gulf. There are a number of development projects going on in Russia and Estonia concerning both old and new terminals. Also new pipelines from the Russian production sites to the coastal oil terminals are under planning or construction. According to an estimate by the EU Commission, in 2010 about 400 million tons of oil and petrochemicals will be processed in the seaports of the Baltic Sea. The risk of accidents is increasing with busier traffic and larger ships. Oil can contaminate the sea through various routes: spills during loading, unloading and other port operations, accidental oil spills from tankers, oil terminals, refineries, pipelines, exploration sites and regular non-tanker shipping, runoff from land, and as municipal and industrial wastes. Any step toward improved safety in shipping decreases the risks and impacts on the marine environment. Therefore the Baltic Sea countries have to continue to work toward pollution-free marine transportation by providing employees environmental protection education and training, by combating substandard shipping, and by increasing international recognition for the ecological significance of the status of the Baltic as a Particularly Sensitive Sea Area (PSSA). The International Maritime Organization (IMO) designated the Baltic Sea a PSSA in 2004.. Several modern tools have been installed for the Gulf of Finland navigation to reduce the risk of ship collisions. One of them is the Gulf of Finland mandatory Ship Reporting System (GOFREP), which went into operation on 1 July 2004. The system covers the international waters of the Gulf of Finland in a joint effort between Finland, Estonia and Russia. By Traffic Separation Schemes (TSS) ships are referred to use a different route when travelling from east/north to west/south and vice versa. Important steps forward to further decrease the risks of shipping and oil accidents were taken in July 2006, when new traffic routing measures entered into force in the central Baltic Sea, in Bornholmsgat, and north of Rügen. In the Gulf of Finland, which is a hot spot area for increasing oil transports, the Vessel Traffic Management and Information System (VTMIS) was taken into use in 2004, including TSS. The HELCOM Automatic Identification System (AIS) provides, since 2005, a very helpful source of information documenting, which enables the identification of the name, position, course, speed, draught and cargo of every ship of more than 300 gross tons sailing in the Baltic Sea. The valuation of oil spill damages is challenging because it attempts to estimate the harm from possible future oil spills, and because the harm depends largely on the conditions at the time of the spill. In addition, it might be difficult for people to perceive the probabilities and uncertainties related to oil spills and their impacts. Against this background it is of utmost importance to improve both the technical and the human aspects of ship operation.

In this Master’s thesis, I investigated the number of microplastics (< 5 mm) in three different groups of benthic invertebrates found in the Baltic Sea: the clam Limecola balthica, the polychaete Marenzelleria spp. and the bloodworm Chironomus spp. larvae. I also investigated the number of microplastics in the soft sediments that are the natural habitats of these animals. I collected the samples along the coast of the Gulf of Finland, between Hanko, Helsinki, and Kotka. To extract the microplastics from the samples I used density separation, hydrogen peroxide and enzymes. I analyzed the samples by focal plane array µFTIR and the spectra were automatically compared to a reference library by MPHunter software. According to this study, the benthic invertebrates are exposed to high quantities of microplastics in their natural habitat, and the animals end up ingesting microplastics. The number of microplastics in the sediment samples were high (between 0–10 145 kg-1 and 1 847–93 973 kg-1 DW sediment), and 90% of them were <300 µm sized particles that the animals used in this study normally ingest, and 54 % were <100 µm sized particles that the animals prefer the most. On average, all the animals had ingested the smaller microplastics that were available in sediments. Despite the high concentration of microplastics in the sediments, the animals had ingested only low numbers of microplastics per individual on average (L. balthica 0,11 ± 0,05 pcs., Marenzelleria spp. 0,46 ± 0,63 pcs., and Chironomus spp. 0,27 ± 0,19 pcs.). No relationship was found between the three different animal groups and the presence of ingested plastic particles, so the animal groups seem to be equally exposed to microplastics. No relationship was either found between the animal groups and the sizes of ingested microplastics. The plastic materials found in the animals and sediments (PA, PP, PE, PET, PMMA and PVC) are commonly used plastic materials. Most of these materials are used in disposable packaging and fishing gear that are the most common sources of microplastics found in marine environments. Although the number of ingested microplastics in benthic invertebrates in the Gulf of Finland seems to be low, the exposure to the microplastics can still be high during their lifetime. The results of this study depict the presence of microplastics in animals during a certain time. The low number of ingested microplastics may present the fact that microplastics do not accumulate in the animals, but rather pass through the digestive system in a short time (2–4 h). The ingested microplastics pose a risk to benthic invertebrates causing them physical and chemical harm. Oxidizing and bioturbating the sediments and as nutrition to other animals the benthic invertebrates have an important role in the Baltic Sea ecosystem, and therefore the consequences of the microplastic in benthic invertebrate community might be far-reaching. It is important to investigate the long term impact of microplastics on benthic invertebrates in order to estimate the real consequences to the marine ecosystems.

Tiivistelmä gradun pdf-tiedostossa.

Ecosystem modelling gives us a tool to understand the complicated processes in an ecological system. When studying the changes in an ecosystem, the system health is one of the main characteristics to define. Healthy ecosystem can endure stress and is in stable state. Ecological network analysis and different ecological indices have been used as a basis for measuring the state of an ecosystem, characterizing the dynamics of marine environments, and quantifying the impacts of fishing. The Archipelago Sea, located in Northern Baltic Sea, is characterized by large gradients in salinity and numerous islands. The area is greatly affected by human impact and climate change. However, no broad research on ecosystem changes has been carried out, hence, there is a need for holistic models both scientifically and societally to understanding the changing ecosystem thoroughly and to provide contribution in the decision-making processes of environmental management actions. The aim of this study was to find out how the state of the Archipelago Sea food web has changed from 1990 to 2014. Three steady-state trophic models of the study area for three different years (1990, 2000 and 2014) were constructed using the Ecopath modelling software and approach. The changes in the study area were measured comparing the calculated ecological indices and fishing impact indicators. The models captured changes in the system such as before and after the invasion of non-indigenous species, increase of cormorants, increase of seals, and decrease of cod. The models consist of 23 (1990), 25 (2000) and 27 (2014) different functional groups from predators to producers and detritus. The quality of the models was tested and according to three different approaches, the models can be said to adequately represent the Archipelago Sea food web and ecosystem. The ecosystem indices calculated showed that there had been system wide changes. The state of the Archipelago Sea food web had changed during the study period to a less mature but more resilient condition. This was due to the increase in number of predator species and higher primary production and flow to detritus. The fishing impact on ecosystem changed as fishery practice experienced a change into a more industrialized direction. Changes in trophic levels and ecosystem composition were observed. The invasion of non-indigenous species and the increase in top predators such as seals and the great cormorant affected the structure of the food web. In Addition, the decrease of flounder and unsuccessful recovery of cod have had an impact on the ecosystem and its maturity. Further research on the Archipelago Sea food web is needed. The ecosystem is stressed and does not show recovery; hence, management actions may become necessary. Future simulations based on these Ecopath models would facilitate the selection of the most suitable ecosystem management application. Knowledge of the whole ecosystem and its health is required, and this can be achieved with the help of ecosystem modelling.

Raakaöljyn ja sen jalosteiden käyttöön energianlähteenä liittyy useita ympäristöongelmia. Näistä yhtenä ovat öljyonnettomuudet, jotka voivat pahimmillaan johtaa vakavaan ympäristökatastrofiin. Myös pienempiä öljypäästöjä tapahtuu jatkuvasti joko vahingossa tai tahallaan aiheutettuina. Meriekosysteemeissä elävät linnut ovat usein öljyvuotojen ensisijaisia uhreja. Niiden höyhenpeite menettää öljyyn tahriutuessaan tärkeät lentämisen, eristämisen ja vedessä kellumisen mahdollistavat ominaisuutensa. Tämän seurauksena öljyyntyneet linnut kylmettyvät ja voivat hukkua. Erityisesti syvältä vedestä ravintonsa sukeltavat lajit ovat herkkiä öljyn vaikutuksille ja niitä uhkaa hyvin nopeasti nälkiintyminen. Myös öljyn myrkylliset yhdisteet aiheuttavat moninaisia haittoja, jotka johtavat lintujen kuolemaan tai heikentävät niiden lisääntymistä. Yksilöille koituvan kärsimyksen lisäksi öljyvahingolla voi olla myös merkittäviä populaatiotason vaikutuksia erityisesti uhanalaisille lintulajeille, joita Suomessakin tavataan useita. Itämeri on luokiteltu erityisen herkäksi merialueeksi, joka on altis erilaisille merenkulun aiheuttamille vahingoille. Matala rannikko ja rikkonainen saaristo yhdistettynä erityisesti talven haastaviin olosuhteisiin lisäävät öljyonnettomuuden riskiä. Toisaalta samat tekijät luovat haasteita öljyntorjuntatyöhön. Suomen aluevesillä suurilta öljyvuodoilta on kuitenkin vältytty useiden vuosikymmenten ajan, vaikka samalla öljynkuljetus on jatkuvasti lisääntynyt. Sota ja sen myötä Euroopan Unionin Venäjälle asettamat talouspakotteet muuttavat nyt Itämeren öljyliikennettä merkittävästi. Venäjän arvaamattomuus luo uhkakuvia, joissa myöskään tahallaan aiheutettu öljyonnettomuus ei ole täysin mahdoton. Kohonneen ympäristökatastrofin riskin vuoksi tämän kirjallisuuskatsauksen aihe on tällä hetkellä erityisen ajankohtainen. Suomessa tehtyjen riskinarviointien ja varautumissuunnitelmien merkitys korostuu, ja myös öljyntorjuntavalmiuteen tulisi panostaa aiempaakin enemmän. Tämä katsaus tarjoaa suomenkielisen koosteen öljyvuotoihin, Itämeren erityispiirteisiin sekä Suomen aluevesien lintulajistoon liittyen. Työ sisältää hyödyllistä ja helposti saatavilla olevaa tietoa sekä eläinlääkäreille että muille asiantuntijoille, joiden työpanosta tarvitaan mahdollisen öljyonnettomuuden aikana.

The role of wood-based bioenergy has improved over the past few years after the European Union’s climate and energy directive came into effect. The main aim of the policy is to substitute fossil fuel with biofuels aim-ing to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, increase energy security and support the development of rural com-munities. To achieve this aim it is necessary to pursue more efficient energy use in living, construction and transport. Most of the EU countries have undertaken to participate in these actions by increasing the use of renewable energy such as wood-based bioenergy. Currently, wood-based bioenergy is highly supported with subsidies and other political decisions that act as the main market driver. Furthermore, the increasing prices of fossil fuels create favorable conditions for future bioenergy market developments. Nevertheless, the role of bioenergy is growing even though the market has its own challenges due to fluctuating forest industry cycles. To better understand the wood-based bioenergy market and its current situation, this Master’s thesis has ga-thered up-to-date information on three different market areas which will assist in finding potential delivery destinations within the Baltic Sea area for wood-based bioenergy produced in the Leningrad region. In addi-tion, this thesis introduces, on a broad scale, the central concepts of wood-based bioenergy and discusses the political drivers affecting bioenergy markets. The theoretical framework is mainly based on the Information Environment Model by Juslin and Hansen (2002), an instrument for investigating the bioenergy market from both macro and micro environment aspects, and on the Relationship Commitment and Trust theory by Morgan and Hunt (1994), which examines how relationships between buyers and sellers are established and discusses the role of two variables - trust and commitment. Both models were applied when collecting both the primary data from bioenergy customers through interviews and the secondary data from research articles, publications and Internet sources. The study also includes a discussion part as well as development proposals related to future customer relationship man-agement. Wood-based bioenergy is an important energy source fighting against climate change. However, to fulfill the targets set by the European Union and country-specific politics there is still a need for more opera-tors working in bioenergy field. Based on the results, it is necessary to support good communication, coopera-tion and trust between raw-material buyers and sellers in order to achieve functional raw-material exchange circumstances. The study is conducted as a qualitative research project.

Alankomaiden tasavalta loi talousmahtinsa 1500-luvun lopulta alkaen merikaupan avulla, jossa Itämeren kaupalla oli merkittävä osansa viljan ja laivanrakennukseen tarvittujen raaka-aineiden tuonnilla. Tutkin pro gradu -työssäni Alankomaiden tasavallan vahvimman maakunnan Hollannin taloudellisia intressejä Itämeren piirissä Skoonen sodan aikana sekä rauhanteon jälkeen vuosina 1675–1685, kun maa oli menettämässä kansainvälispoliittista asemaansa Ranskan aggressiivisen ulkopolitiikan takia. Analysoin työssäni varhaismodernin kaupankäynnin ja valtapolitiikan välistä suhdetta, joka syntyi Alankomaiden tasavallan päädyttyä sotaan sen tärkeää kauppakumppania Ruotsia vastaan osana Ranskan-Alankomaiden sotaa (1672–1678). Tutkimukseni metodi on poliittinen taloushistoria, jonka tarkoituksena on selvittää taloudellisten vaikuttimien ja ristiriitojen merkitystä poliittisten päätösten takana. Tutkimuksessa selvitän, millä tavalla Hollannin maakunnan kauppiaiden intressejä suojeltiin diplomatian avulla. Analyysini keskiössä on Alankomaiden tasavallan Ruotsin lähettiläs Christiaan Constantijn Rumpf, jonka kirjeenvaihtoa ja muistiinpanoja hyödynnän työni ensisijaisena lähdeaineistona. Hyödynnän tutkimuksessa Risto Heiskalan sekä Akseli Virtasen luomaa teoriaa ihmisten yhteistyön koordinaatiosta, jonka avulla käsitteellistän työssäni erilaisia tapoja järjestää yhteiskuntaelämää ja sen ristiriitoja. Tuon tutkimuksessani ilmi, kuinka Hollannin maakunnan ytimen Amsterdamin pitkälle erikoistuneelle taloudelle oleelliset Itämeren markkinat olivat sodankäynnin takia suurissa vaikeuksissa. Kaupankäynnin edellytyksiä vaikeuttivat vuosien 1676–1677 aikana etenkin epävarma postinkulku sekä laivojen kaappaukset. Käskynhaltija Vilhelm III:n henkilökohtaiset valtapoliittiset ambitiot vaikuttivat niihin reunaehtoihin, joilla hollantilaiset kauppiaat saattoivat toimia Itämeren piirissä. Käskynhaltijan intressissä oli jatkaa sotaa ja kasvattaa vaikutusvaltaansa niin pitkään, kunnes Ranska olisi saatu taivutettua Alankomaille edullisiin rauhanehtoihin. Näin vastakkain olivat käskynhaltija Vilhelm III:n sisä- ja ulkopoliittiset intressit ja Amsterdamin kauppiaiden talousintressit. Esitän, että Hollannin maakunnan kauppiaiden intressejä suojeltiin diplomatian avulla Skoonen sodan aikana sekä rauhanteon jälkeen aktiivisesti kauppasopimuspolitiikan avulla. Tässä diplomaattisessa toiminnassa lähettiläs Christiaan Constantijn Rumpfin työ maiden kauppasuhteiden kehittäjänä ja henkilösuhteiden luojana oli keskeistä. Näkemykseni mukaan Rumpf koki tärkeäksi toimia käskynhaltija Vilhelm III:n aikana myös amsterdamilaisten kauppiaiden edun mukaisesti, sillä nämä piirit olivat edelleen poliittisesti vaikutusvaltaisia käskynhaltijan voimistuneesta valtapoliittisesta asemasta huolimatta. Sodan vuoksi vaikeutuneet taloussuhteet normalisoitiin 1680-luvun alussa, kun Ruotsin uusi ulkopolitiikka kääntyi tuolloin ranskalaismielisen vaiheen jälkeen kohti Alankomaita suosivaa tasapainopolitiikkaa. Hintana Ruotsille oli kuitenkin markkinoiden luovuttaminen hollantilaisille ja korvausten maksaminen sodan aikana kaapatuista viljalaivoista.

Human-induced nutrient enrichment has led to eutrophication, which is globally a severe environmental problem in aquatic ecosystems. Eutrophication has a variety of deteriorating effects on marine ecosystems in the form of e.g., cyanobacterial blooms, bottom water hypoxia and anoxia, as well as increased fish and benthos mortality. The Baltic Sea is especially prone to eutrophication due to the combined effects of restricted water exchange and extensive nutrient loads. Nutrient enrichment reinforces primary production which further enhances organic matter remineralisation in the sediment – water interface, leading to oxygen depletion in the bottom waters. Decreased oxygen concentrations on the seafloor can lead to the release of phosphorus bound to reducible iron oxides. The so-called ‘vicious circle’ of internal loading is formed through the further enhanced nutrient release from the sediments into the water column due to the reduced bottom water conditions resulting from increased supply of organic matter into the system. However, the processes controlling phosphorus transport from land to sea through the ‘coastal filter’ remain poorly understood. In this study, sediments from Paimionlahti estuary were examined for phosphorus content and bulk elemental composition. Sedimentary phosphorus contents were determined through chemical extractions. The extracted fractions of phosphorus (P) include Fe oxide bound P (Fe-P), authigenic apatite P (Ca-P I), detrital apatite P (Ca-P II), and organic P (org-P). The fraction of Fe-P dominated in the upper sediment layers in most sites, whereas more unreactive fractions associated with P burial remained constant through sediment depth. The generally unreactive forms of P illustrated increasing trends towards open sea areas, partly explained by changes in the overall sediment composition as well as by potential differences in environmental conditions among sampling sites. The highest amounts of Fe-P were recorded in sites with the highest sediment accumulation. The results demonstrate that P from rivers is transformed and processed in the coastal zone, delaying its transport to the open sea.

Phycobilins are the main light harvesting pigments in picocyanobacteria. Chlorophyll-a is the main photosynthetic pigment in cyanobacteria as in all phytoplankton. In cyanobacteria, most of chl-a is positioned within the non-fluorescing photosystem I (PSI). Cyanobacteria phycobiliproteins are the main photosynthetic pigments in photosystem II (PSII). Phycobilins fluorescence can be used to help assess the presence and monitoring of cyanobacteria. The fluorescence intensity depends on the examined cyanobacteria group, pigment concentration and phytoplankton growth phase. In this research I studied, using flow-through fluorometers, where the phycoerythrin (PE) fluorescence is originating from and its variation in the Baltic Sea. PE fluorescence signal measured with flow-through fluorometers was also compared with other optical measurements. This study was performed in summer 2016 as part of Alg@line and JERICO-Next projects. Flow-through fluorometers (TriOS and Chelsea) were installed to M/S Finnmaid ship, which trafficked regularly on its route Helsinki–Travemünde. The automated flow-through sensors onboard M/S Finnpartner collected continuous data during 25.5–31.8.2016. Along the route Travemünde-Helsinki, a refrigerated sampler collected water samples once a week from 3 stations. Water samples acted as a reference samples for PE fluorescence signal analysis. Water samples were separated by filtration into three size fractions (total < 2 µm, and < 0.2 µm) and an excitation-emission spectrum was measured. The number of picocyanobacteria/ml, their surface area/ml and biovolume/ml was calculated using epifluorescence microscope. The number of PE-containing picocyanobacteria cells/ml and size was determined by flow cytometer and number of larger PE-containing phytoplankton cells, their size and taxonomy was determined using FlowCam. Most of the PE-fluorescence measured during summer 2016 was originating from pico-fraction. There was not a clear connection between flow-through PE fluorometers and other optical measurements. PE signal originating from fluorometers did not correlate with total fluorescence signal measured with spectrofluorometer. A reason for this can be that the sample has suffered preservation and transport due to the elapsed time. Some of the optical measurements correlated well with each other, and some did not. Excitation-emission spectrum measured from pico-fraction correlated with picocyanobacteria surface area/ml calculated with epifluorescence microscope. This can be explained by the fact that picocyanobacteria pigments are mainly located in the cell membrane. Number of cells/ml calculated with flow cytometer was much lower than the number/ml calculated with epifluorescence microscope. Sample could have been too dense when multiple cells has been interpreted as one larger cell. The program used for the grouping of cells could have also left low PE fluorescence value containing cells without counts. PE fluorescence originating from over 2 µm size fraction measured with spectrofluorometer and fluorescence originating from over 3 µm fraction pictured with FlowCam was not observed similar incidence of various stations in the summer of 2016. PE fluorometers alone are not sufficient for monitoring picocyanobacteria cells containing phycoerythrin in the Baltic Sea but PE fluorometers can be used as support to other methods.

The Baltic Sea is one of the most extensive oxygen-depleted (hypoxic) areas. The hypoxic areas in the Baltic Sea are becoming more common due to climate change and anthropogenic eutrophication. The influence of hypoxia on sediment communities is in general well known, but the impact of different degrees of hypoxic stress on the functions of benthic microbial communities is less studied. Although the impact of microbes on benthic ecosystem functioning can be significant, the changes caused by hypoxia disturbed microbial communities are not well known. These changes can affect other organisms and environment globally because microbes influence nutrient and element cycles. Also some microbial species produce toxic hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in anaerobic conditions. This study investigated sandy sediments taken from the Baltic Sea whose organism communities were artificially disturbed by covering sediment plots with oxygen impermeable plastic sheets. Covering induced artificially hypoxia (< 2 ml O2 l-1) of different durations for 0, 3, 7 and 48 days. This thesis concentrated studying the bacterial communities of the disturbed sediments. Change in bacterial community was observed by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis (T-RFLP). The aim was find out how bacterial community composition and diversity changed in sediments influenced by increasing hypoxic disturbance. The conducted observations indicated how changes within the bacterial community can influence other organisms and environment. Results obtained by permutational ANOVA testing indicated that bacterial community composition, especially bacterial biodiversity, was influenced by artificially induced hypoxia lasting 48 days. A slight decrease in bacterial diversity was seen already after 7 days hypoxia. Overall bacterial community was more resistant to disturbance than animal fauna, which has been studied in parallel research (Villnäs ym. 2012). H2S-producing deltaproteobacteria (e.g. Desulfatiferula, Desulfovibrio and Desulfofustis) were observed in sediments which were disturbed the longest, which explains the H2S production detected in chemical data of the parallel study. This may have caused a decrease in macrofauna. Amounts of sulfate-reducing bacteria correlated with increases in ammonium and silicate, which may increase both eutrophication and anoxia in an aquatic system. Results indicated that bacterial community was disturbed due to increasing hypoxia, and changes in the bacterial community correlated with changes in chemical parameters. Observations suggest that changes in the composition of a bacterial community may influence an entire ecosystem. The composition of microbial communities should be taken into account when studying the impact of environmental disturbances on various ecosystems.