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In brain imaging research, two types of inferences are regularly employed: direct inference proceeds from a cognitive function to observed brain activation, whereas inverse inference takes an opposite direction from observed activation to a cognitive function. Inverse inference is more problematic of these two. Its hasty application could lead to errors in the interpretation of experimental results. In this study, conditions for the succesful use of inverse inference are analyzed. To start with, inverse inference should always be part of the testing process of a neurocognitive model, and there should be at least preliminary understanding of the neural correlates of cognitive functions. With the help of Bayesian analysis, quantitative estimates for the strength of inverse inference could be calculated. The bayesian analysis shows that this strength is inversely proportional to the number of different experimental tasks associated with activations in the region of interest. There is also an important distinction between two types of inverse inference: constrained inference is restricted to the activations associated with one type of experimental task, wheras unconstrained inference involves all the tasks that activate the region of interest. Especially unconstrained inference is strengthened by the use of large pools of experimental results, which are recently collected to the neuroscientific databases such as BrainMap or NeuroSynth. One problem for inverse inference is that there are not any commonly accepted taxonomies of cognitive functions. The lack of unitary vocabulary could leave the mapping between mental functions and brain mechanisms indeterminate. As a solution, some researchers have developed cognitive ontologies, which are formal knowledge structures with an explicit goal to define unitary empirically-based cognitive concepts. As a conclusion, it could be stated that if the above mentioned considerations are carefully taken into account, the employment of inverse inference becomes acceptable in the context of brain imaging studies.

ABSTRACT Background. The brain reward system refers to a group of neural structures responsible for the experience of pleasure and approach behavior. According to previous studies, depression is associated with altered reward functioning, such as reduced activation in nucleus accumbens. However, the results are conflicting, and the neurobiology of depression is not fully understood which might be due to the heterogeneity of depression disorder. Aims. The present review examines the association between anhedonia, the core symptom of depression, and the altered structure and function of the brain reward system. Anhedonia refers to a reduced ability to experience pleasure and difficulties in engaging in pleasurable activities. Methods. The data was collected in October 2019 from the PubMed and Medline databases. A total of ten experimental studies met the selection criteria and were selected for the review. Two of the studies studied structural differences in the medial forebrain bundle with diffusion imaging. Whereas the rest explored functional differences of the brain reward system mostly with functional magnetic resonance imaging. Results and conclusions. Anhedonia was associated with altered function in nucleus accumbens and white matter microstructure alterations in the medial forebrain bundle. In addition, alterations in cortical connectivity were found especially in ventromedial prefrontal cortex. According to the studies reviewed, alterations in the brain reward system reflected impairments rather in motivated behavior than experience of pleasure. The review includes only cross-sectional studies and therefore does not provide insight into causality of observed associations. More longitudinal studies are needed to provide insight into whether the changes observed are etiological or compensatory mechanisms of anhedonia.

Tavoitteet. Vain kolmannes suomalaisista nuorista kokee saavansa kunnollisia valmiuksia kouluun tai lähiympäristöön vaikuttamiseen (Myllyniemi 2018). Samanaikaisesti 83% alaluokkien opettajista katsoo, ettei ole saanut riittävästi koulutusta demokratiakasvatuksen toteuttamiseen koulussa (Opetushallitus 2011). Tämän tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli tarkastella, millaisia yhteiskunnallisia toimijoita opettajaopiskelijat ovat, miten he näkevät yhteiskunnalliseen aktiivisuuteen kasvattamisen ja millaisia valmiuksia opettajankoulutus antaa yhteiskunnalliseen aktiivisuuteen kasvattamiseen. Teoreettisenä viitekehyksenä käytän aktiivisen kansalaisen ja demokratiakasvatuksen käsitteitä. Menetelmät. Tutkimus toteutettiin kuvailevana kirjallisuuskatsauksena. Aineisto koostui kahdeksasta vertaisarvioidusta artikkelista, joista kolmessa käsiteltiin suomalaista opettajaopiskelijaa ja opettajankoulutuslaitosta. Tulokset ja johtopäätökset. Opettajaopiskelijat pitivät aktiiviseen kansalaisuuteen kasvattamista tärkeänä tavoitteena. Suomalaiset opettajaopiskelijat pitivät opettajaa yhteiskunnallisena vaikuttajana ja käyttivät demokraattisia menetelmiä opetuksessaan. Erilaisilla kansalaiskasvatukseen liittyvillä ohjelmilla oli vaikutusta opettajaopiskelijoiden yhteiskunnallisen ymmärryksen kasvuun, mutta kriittisyys ei johtanut yhteiskunnallisen toimijuuden kehittymiseen. Suomalainen opettajaopiskelija lähestyi tarkasteltavassa aineistossa yhteiskunnallista kasvatusta säilyttävän perinteen kautta siinä missä muut länsimaalaiset opettajaopiskelijat näkivät tärkeänä kriittisemmän lähestymistavan yhteiskuntaan. Tässä mielessä suomalainen opettajaopiskelija asemoituu lähemmäs turkkilaisia opiskelutovereitaan kuin länsimaisia opiskelijakollegoitaan.

Aphasia is an aquired language disorder that can follow the loss or damage of brain tissue. A lot of methods for speech and language rehabilitation of aphasia have been developed and their efficacy in the chronic stages of aphasia have been studied. In Finland more than 6000 people each year are affected by aphasia as a result of a left-hemisphere stroke or other damage to the language areas of the brain. Most of them are patients of speech and langugage pathologists from the acute stage on, but there aren’t many studies of the methods or efficacy of rehabilitation of acute aphasia. In this study the purpose is to introduce previous research that have looked into the methods used by speech and language pathologists in the acute phase of aphasia, as well as to find information on the effectiveness of these methods. This study is a descriptive literature review. The data was collected using EBSCO-, ProQuest Linguistics - and PubMed databases. The search terms used in this descriptive literature review were aphasia, early, acute, rehabilitation and intervention. Data collection followed the selection criteria set out in the study: 1) the research was peer-reviewed, 2) year of publication from 2000 to 2016, 3) available in English language, 4) full text available, 5) The studied subject was speech and language pathology rehabilitation to people with aphasia following stroke and the rehabilitation began within 2 weeks after lesion and was carried out during 3 months from the starting point. The search returned 113 articles from which the application of selection criteria produced the final data of 7 items. Information retrieval and interpretation of data followed the principles of descriptive literature review. No conclusive evidence of the effectiveness acute aphasia speech therapy rehabilitation came up in my study. However, it would appear that the stroke patients not only tolerated but in many case benefitted from up to daily speech therapy rehabilitation. Methods used in the acute phase rehabilitation are not spesific to early interventions, but identical to those of chronic aphasia rehabilitation and their use often continues seamlessly from the acute stage onwards. Their usability in the acute phase after stroke was good.

In my bachelor thesis, I wanted to research experiences of participants of Käden taidot courses at Vantaa Adult Education Institute of Tikkurila. I chosed Adult Education Institute of Tikkurila as research target, because it is one of the biggest adult institute in Finland. I wanted to find out following themes: what kind of different motives people had to take part in different kind of Käden taidot courses and what kind of preconceptions they had toward these courses. I also wanted to find out how these preconceptions came true. Inquiry method I used, was survey, because with it, it is easy to handle big sampling and it is easy to answer anonymously. Inquiry method I used was based on Likert scale multiple choice questions and open questions. In the inquiry form every multiple choice was followed by open question where the participants could define the answer they gave. I took 60 forms to the Adult Education Institute and I ged back 24, so the answering percentage was 40. The classification of my inquiry based on qualitative and narrative analysis. Based on the answers I get, I divited participants to three different groups; “the Repeater”, “the Hang arounder” and “the Knower”. The repeater wats to revise a course again, because it is possible to learn something new. The Hang arounder takes part to a course, because the reference group is so good, even if she/he wants to learn something new. To the Knower it is most important to learn something new, when the social aspect has a minor role. Named groups went one on the other and it was difficult to make accurate categorizations. All the respondents agreed that all preconceptions towar courses came true and they were educational. In addition to they served social needs.

Objectives. Previous studies have shown that the importance of learning content knowledge has decreased in a world where to apply knowledge has become a requirement in almost all branches. To meet these future needs, supporting thinking skills has come internationally as a top priority in teaching activities. However, research has shown teachers' ability to teach thinking skills inadequate. The purpose of this study is to clarify the concept of thinking skills and the development of these skills in accordance with the theory of Demetriou et al. (2011). In addition, the aim is to find out what factors, especially in relation to the teacher activities, support or undermine the development of pupils' thinking skills at school. Methods. The research was carried out as a systematic literature review. After choosing the topic, the data was collected from the Thinking Skills and Creativity -journal in accordance with the admission and exclusion criteria defined in my study. Four peer-reviewed articles published in 2016-2018 were selected as material, all of which deal with teachers or teacher students and the teaching of thinking skills. The key words were "teacher" or "teaching" combined with "teaching thinking skills". Results and conclusions. The results showed several shortcomings in supporting thinking skills. Teacher-oriented teaching style, poor understanding of the concept, persistent beliefs about learning, inadequate knowledge and skills, and the content of teacher education proved to be obstacles to the development of thinking skills. The results also showed that how to learn is relevant to the development of cognitive skills (not so much what to learn). The results showed that student-centered ways of working also supported thinking skills development. Teacher's self-efficacy towards thinking skills, as well as sufficient knowledge and skills in thinking skills, supported the development of pupils' cognitive development. In conclusion, there is enough evidence of student-centered work practices to support future skills learning and the need to reform teacher education to better support the development of future teachers' thinking skills.

Objectives. Over the past decades, the development of technology has been fast. Worries, some even needless have popped up that the state of world could affect negatively to the health of people. There is scientific evidence that these modern health worries are associated with many factors that lower the quality of life. For the sake of possible causality it is important to try to prevent these worries and for that it would be good to know which factors cause them. In this review it will be assessed if analytic and intuitive thinking style, personality traits and demographic factors of individual variables add probability for modern health worries and if so, then why it would be. Methods. This thesis was produced as a literature review. The data was collected during fall 2019 with Google Scholar -search engine using search terms like Modern health worries + thinking style and Modern health worries + personality. In addition, studies were manually searched from the reference lists of articles that were already found. Results and conclusions. Of thinking styles the intuitive thinking had the most repeated evidence in association with modern health worries. The association may be explained with intuitive thinkers’ typical predisposition to holistic world view. Of personality traits neuroticism was associated the most with modern health worries, which might be due to higher risk assessment rates that are characteristic to people high on neuroticism. Of demographic factors gender and age were most clearly associated with the number of health worries in a way, that women had more worries than men and older people more than younger ones. Reasons for these differences may exist deeper in biology or be for example motivational. It must be noted that detected associations were quite small, and in some studies, there were none. Additional research is needed before possible effects of these individual variables can be used in advance of preventing modern health worries.

This research is a literature review about place attachment and othering. The aim was to examine the meaning of place attachment and othering and to investigate the thoughts people have about place attachment based on previous studies. Another aim was to seek possible connections between place attachment and othering. The most important goal for the researcher was to find theory-based support for class teachers to help pupils concerning their feelings about home and place attachment. Diverse academic researches, articles, doctoral dissertations and master´s thesis were used as materials for this literature review. Narrative literature review was utilized as a method to make the review as comprehensive as possible. Most of the material was found from the international field but there is also some material from Finland. Especially in cultural and humanistic geography there has been much research about place attachment and the individual experience around it. A specific place becomes meaningful through individual´s emotions, experiences, relationships and memories. The feeling of belonging to a place (place attachment) is composed between these factors. The meaning of home, close relationships and special memories came to the fore the most. Individual features as age, sex and socio-economic status had also an influence on how the place attachment was formed. Based on this literature review othering happens through place attachment when surroundings as people around us increases inequality.

Tiivistelmä - Referat - Abstract Tutkimuksen tausta, tavoite ja tarkoitus: Tutkimus kohdistui kasvattajien pyrkimykseen tukea lasten vertaissuhteita 3–5-vuotiaiden ryhmässä, toimintakaudella 2020–2021 yhdessä Uudellamaalla sijaitsevassa päiväkodissa. Tutkimuksen tavoite oli kuvata prosessi, jossa kehittämistyöhön sitoutunut tiimi suunnitteli, toteutti ja arvioi pedagogisia keinoja lasten vertaissuhde- ja kaveritaitojen kehittämiseksi. Tarkoituksena oli tehdä näkyväksi ryhmä pedagogisen suunnitteluprosessin eri vaiheet yhden lukuvuoden ajalta. Menetelmät: Pedagogiseen suunnitteluprosessiin osallistui kaksi kahdenhengen päiväkotitiimiä, joista toisessa tiimissä toimin sijaisena. Tutkimus perustuu lähtökohtaisesti tähän tiimin, jossa toimin sijaisena. Tutkimusaineisto koostui pedagogisista dokumenteista, tiimikeskusteluista, havaintopäiväkirjoista ja tiimin tekemistä arvioinneista. Analyysimenetelmänä toimi teoriaperustainen sisällönanalyysi. Pedagogisen suunnitteluprosessin kuvauksen osalta sovellettiin ongelmaperustaisen oppimisen prosessimallia (PBL). Lasten vertaissuhde- ja kaveritaitojen tarkastelussa hyödynnettiin Laaksosen ja Revon (2017) luokittelua vertaissuhdetaitojen osa-alueista. Tulokset ja johtopäätökset: Tutkimus osoitti, että pedagoginen suunnitteluprosessi on tärkeä osa varhaiskasvatuksen ammattilaisten työtä, ja toiminnan hedelmät poimitaan vähin erin matkan varrella. Suunnittelutyön olennaiseksi osaksi osoittautui toiminnan dokumentointi ja arviointi. Tätä tiimi teki pitkin lukuvuotta niin arjen tilanteissa kuin erikseen tiimipalavereissa. Lukukauden (syksy 2020) alussa keskityttiin lasten leikkiin ja ryhmätason toimiin. Näin jokaiselle lapselle haluttiin tuottaa kokemus ryhmään kuulumisesta. Lasten leikkejä havainnoiden ja mukana eläen tiimi lisäsi ymmärrystään lasten välisistä suhteista ja vertaisvuorovaikutuksen etenemisestä. Joka kuukausi tiimi kävi arvioivaa keskustelua tavoitteiden ja toimenpiteiden suhteen. Arviointi ei siis ollut prosessin erillinen vaihe, vaan kulki mukana koko prosessin ajan. Toiminnan dokumentoinnin ja arvioinnin avulla luotiin suuntaviittoja tulevaan ja tarkennettiin pedagogisia keinoja ottaen huomioon lasten taitojen ja kaverisuhteiden kehittyminen sekä arjessa tapahtuneet muutokset (esim. uuden lapsen tuloa ryhmään). Vertaissuhdetaitojen osa-alueista syksyn toiminnassa korostui vuorovaikutukseen liittymisen ja ryhmässä toimimisen taidot, joita tuettiin mm. yhteisleikeillä ja muihin tutustumisella. Myös toisten lasten huomioon ottamisen taidot olivat tuolloin vahvasti esillä. Näiden taitojen kehittämisessä aikuisilla oli tärkeä rooli. Lukuvuoden kuluessa tiimi saattoi arvioida lasten ryhmäytyneen hyvin ja leikkien sujuvan useiden kavereiden kanssa, joskin vuorovaikutuksen ylläpitämisen taitoja harjoitetiin edelleen. Vertaisten tukemisen taidoissa tiimi sai kokea onnistuneensa, kun lapset vahvuus- ja taitokartan avulla oppivat nimeämään ja tunnistamaan toisten vahvuuksia ja saivat myös itse vertaisilta arvostavaa palautetta.

The connection between cognitive biases and pathological gambling has been under investigation for a while now. In this paper the link between problem gambling and cognitive biases, is examined in the context of their simultaneous coexistence and in their possible cause and effect relationship. This paper attempts to answer the questions: What or which cognitive biases are linked to problem gambling? In what way are they linked? Are there some identifiable mechanisms, that can be used to explain how the cognitive biases might lead into, and help to maintain the habit of problem gambling? The cognitive biases covered in this paper are: Gamblers fallacy, illusion of control, near-miss, chasing and entrapment, as well as double-switching and related dual processing model.