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Browsing by master's degree program "Taloustieteen maisteriohjelma"

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  • Mostýnová, Michaela (2019)
    In Finland, entrepreneurs (both employers and self-employed) are, compared to salaried employees, free to increase their compulsory retirement insurance contributions to the public pension fund; this being an alternative to additional saving for retirement in private pension funds. This thesis seeks to identify and further examine factors which supposedly influence entrepreneurs‘ perceived sufficiency of their retirement insurance payments . The purpose is to subsequently recommend retirement policy designs which would incentivize Finnish entrepreneurs to increase their contributions to the public pension fund. The empirical section of this work was conducted on a sample of 2 294 entrepreneurs (1 533 self-employed and 761 employers) who took part in the 2017 Labor Force Ad hoc Survey on Entrepreneurship carried out by Statistics Finland. The initial hypotheses gave rise to four categories of variables, presumably affecting sufficiency of retirement insurance contributions perceived by the study sample; namely, ’Personal characteristics & Business background’, ’Motivation’, ’Future perspectives’ and ’Job satisfaction & excitement’. The obtained results suggest that the majority of the selected variables have an effect on entrepreneurs’ perceived sufficiency of their pension insurance contributions. Besides, the factors identified as negatively affecting the perceived sufficiency of retirement insurance payments were more frequently present in the group of self-employed compared to the group of entrepreneurs (employers). Therefore, it is expected that the self-employed are more prone to pay themselves insufficient pension insurance contributions. However, all these factors are considered as incorrigible since they stem from the very nature of complex human behaviour. In this sense, the behavioural approach seems to be highly relevant when forming retirement insurance policies seeking to encourage prudent saving behaviour. This study applies an alternative approach of behavioural economics to the problematics of retirement saving. The first part of the thesis outlines foundations of behavioural economics which serve as a theoretical background for further analyses. For instance, propositions of procrastination, self-control and mental accounting are discussed.
  • Laakso, Tomi (2022)
    Flash crashes are one of the most prominent market inefficiencies which are recognized in stock and index prices. They violate the hypothesis of efficient markets and affect the real economy as well. Their proper forecasting has not been possible with conventional methods due to their seeming rarity and extremity. Furthermore, they are difficult to detect from the noise of price processes. By augmenting the HAR model with company-specific news data aim is to improve volatility estimates on days when these extreme events occur. These days are first identified from the price processes by a novel statistical method called V-statistic, which detects statistically significant flash crashes. Data is every fulfilled trade for six stocks from New York Stock Exchange, and company-specific news flow data which is obtained from RavenPack News Analytics service. Both data sets cover the years 2014 to 2016. HAR model is estimated for all six stocks with and without the news data and the in-sample-model estimates are compared both on the full data and on the days when flash crashes occur. Results are ambiguous but they give slight signs that news data could be useful for improving volatility estimates on the days when flash crashes occur. Model volatility estimates are better on average when augmented with news data. Mean absolute percentage error is 0.1% smaller on average across all entities when augmenting the model with news data. However, there are differences across companies on how much and if at all news data improves models' performance. In conclusion, further work is needed to verify the usefulness of news data in forecasting flash crashes.
  • Sandell, Hanna (2020)
    The inaccuracy of transport infrastructure projects’ cost estimation has become large issue especially because the amount of large mega projects has been increasing during past few years. The cost estimation inaccuracy is problematic because it biases the results of cost-benefit analysis, which is used to measure the profitability of a project. Subsequently this bias can lead to the misallocation of scarce resources. Besides the construction costs, cost estimation includes the computation of owner’s indirect costs. In this thesis, owner’s indirect costs cover the construction management costs and design costs of the project. According to the current instructions, indirect costs are calculated using fixed default values. As the currently used calculation method does not take the project’s individual properties into account, need for alternative approach has increased. Thus the objective of this thesis is to forecast owner’s indirect costs in the late phases of the infrastructure projects by applying two different machine learning models: linear multiple regression model and artificial neural network model. Additionally, the aim is to study, whether machine learning models provided can outperform the currently used instructions in the prediction of indirect costs. Aim of well-functioning forecast model would be to improve the cost estimation’s accuracy level. In this thesis, owner is defined as the government and indirect costs are only forecasted in later phases of the project. Research question is attempted to solve by applying two commonly used machine learning models: artificial neural network and multiple regression model. Neural network used in this thesis is a feedforward network, which learning mechanism is based on backpropagation algorithm. Multiple regression model utilizes traditional OLS method in the estimation of parameters’ values. Models are constructed with data provided by Finnish Transport Infrastructure Agency. Data includes infrastructure projects’ initial data and the actual shares of design and construction management costs of each project. As an outcome, this thesis provides two preliminary forecast models for owner’s indirect costs. The results also indicate that the neural network and regression model are able to forecast owner’s indirect costs in both categories with higher accuracy compared to the current instructions. Furthermore, study aided to recognize influential variables affecting the indirect costs. During the research process, also few improvements for further development of the forecast models were identified. From the machine learning models, neural network performs better in forecasting the design costs and regression model is able to forecast the construction management costs with slightly better accuracy. These results support the conclusion that costs with uncertain and missing information can be forecasted more precisely with more complex machine learning models, such as the artificial neural network. On the other hand, costs with comprehensive knowledge can be accurately predicted with simpler models, such as the multiple regression.
  • Raikamo, Joackim (2022)
    Producing timely information regarding the current and future state of the economy is important for the practice of economic policy: the delay between the implementation of policy measures and the emergence of their effects is typically considerable, which creates a need to anticipate developments in macroeconomic variables. The producer price index is one such variable: producer price indices are used to track changes in the general price level of goods produced within an economy from the point-of-view of producers, which makes them prominent indicators of inflationary pressures and business cycle conditions. The principal objective of this thesis is to investigate whether the Finnish Producer Price Index for Manufactured Goods could be reliably forecasted in the short run using large sets of external predictors. Increasing the number of predictors exposes standard forecasting methods to inaccuracies and makes their application outright infeasible once the number of variables exceeds the number of observations available for the estimation of the forecasting model. Various alternative methods have been proposed to counter this issue. This thesis provides a broad overview of these methods as well as other relevant issues pertaining to the forecasting macroeconomic variables. Given that no single framework has proven to dominate others in practical applications, a selection of methods has been chosen for the empirical section of this thesis. These methods represent two different approaches to high-dimensional forecasting: dynamic factor models and penalized regressions. The effectiveness of dynamic factor models is based on the assumption that relevant information contained in high-dimensional data can be summarized using only relatively few underlying factors, the estimates of which can, in turn, be used for forecasting. The solution offered by penalized regressions, on the other hand, is based on striking a balance between the bias and variance of the forecasts. Out of the broader class of penalized methods, four different variations will be utilized in this thesis: the Ridge, Lasso, Elastic Net, and Adaptive Lasso. The empirical performance of the methods will be assessed by conducting a simulated out-of-sample forecasting experiment, in which a series of consecutive forecasts are estimated for the target variable using historical data. These forecasts are, in turn, compared to their realized counterparts. The objective of the experimental arrangement is to produce representative information regarding the empirical accuracy of the respective forecasting models by emulating circumstances faced in real-time forecasting: only information that would have been available at the time is used to produce each forecast. The set of predictors used in the experiment is composed of monthly economic time series collected from a variety of sources. Based on the forecasting experiment, the benefit of the high-dimensional models in terms of average forecasting accuracy turns out to be only marginal in comparison to a univariate autoregressive benchmark at the one-, two-, and three-month horizons. Moreover, the differences among the respective high-dimensional methods are found to be insignificant. On the other hand, more favorable results are achieved by using relatively timely market-based variables to predict the concurrent rather than strictly future values of the index. In this case, the penalized models perform particularly well. The results indicate that leveraging the advantage in publication lag enjoyed by external predictors for the purpose of contemporaneous prediction, or nowcasting, could represent the most potential for predicting the producer price index.
  • Mäkelä, Elias (2022)
    Apteekit muodostavat oleellisen osan suomalaista lääkehuoltoa. Apteekkien tehtävänä on huolehtia lääkehuollon tehokkaasta ja turvallisesta järjestämisestä. Apteekkimarkki-nan raskaan sääntelyn johdosta apteekeille muodostuu paikallisia monopoleja. Apteek-kien ja apteekkareiden verotuksen avulla pyritään kattamaan lääkehuollon kustannuksia sekä saavuttamaan tulonjaollisia tavoitteita. Tämä tutkielma pyrkii selvittämään harjoitta-vatko apteekit vero-optimointia ja millaisia taloudellisia vaikutuksia sillä on. Veroreaktioiden tutkimiseen käytetään usein verotuksen muutoksen luomaa luonnollista koeasetelmaa. Apteekkiverotuksessa ei ole tapahtunut merkittäviä muutoksia aineiston aikavälillä. Aineistona tutkielmassa käytetään FIMEAN apteekkien talousaineistoa vuosil-ta 2010-2018, yhdistettynä avoimesti saatavilla olevaan aineistoon apteekkien tiloissa toimivista erillisyhtiöistä. Apteekkien vero-optimointia lähestytään tarkastelemalla koko-naisverotuksen luomia verokannusteita. Tyyliteltyjä verokäyttäytymismalleja verrataan apteekkien ja apteekkareiden toteutuneeseen käyttäytymiseen. Veroja optimoivan käy-töksen sattumanvaraisuuden poissulkemiseksi käytetään logistista regressioanalyysiä. Tulosten perusteella apteekkareiden keskuudessa yleistyy systemaattinen vero-optimointia erillisyhtiöiden kautta tapahtuvalla tulonmuunnolla. Ylimpään tulodesiiliin kuuluvat apteekkarit saavuttavat näin lähes 15 prosenttiyksikön veroedun. Vero-optimoinnin todennäköisyyttä nostaa siirrettävissä olevat tulot sekä apteekkariin kohdis-tuva henkilöveroprosentti. Siirrettävien tulojen ylittäessä 200 tuhatta euroa ylittää erillis-yhtiön todennäköisyys 50 prosenttia. Verotulojen menetys on noussut, kun maksettujen yhteisöverojen kasvu huomioidaan, noin 15 miljoonaan euroa vuodessa. Tulokset ovat linjassa pienyritysten vero-optimoinnin empiirisen tutkimuskirjallisuuden kanssa. Aiheen jatkotutkimuksen kannalta olisi hyödyllistä yhdistää aineistoon veroaineisto henkilön tarkkuudella. Tarkastelu olisi mielenkiintoista laajentaa koskemaan kaikkia listaamatto-mia osakeyhtiöitä.
  • Ropa, Anton (2020)
    Työn tuottavuuden merkitys kansantalouden tasolla talouskasvulle ja mikrotaloustasolla yritysten tapauksessa niiden menestymiselle on merkittävä. Työn tuottavuuteen vaikuttavien tekijöiden kirjo on laaja ja tässä tutkielmassa keskitytään tarkastelemaan henkisen pääoman vaikutusta työn tuottavuuteen. Tarkastelun keskiössä on keinot henkisen pääoman konvertoimiseksi henkilöstötuottavuudeksi ja henkilöstötuottavuuden tilan mallintamiseksi. Tutkimuskysymyksenä tarkastellaan suomalaisten yritysten kannattavuuden ja henkilöstötuottavuusindeksin korrelaatiota. Henkisen pääoman olemassaolo ei ole tae yrityksen menestymiselle. Keskeistä henkilöstötuottavuuden kannalta on ottaa yrityksen omaama henkinen pääoma hyötykäyttöön. Haasteelliseksi tilanteen tekee se, että henkinen pääoma on sidoksissa yrityksen henkilöstöön. Tutkielmassa esiteltävän aiemman kirjallisuuden mukaan henkilöstötuottavuuden stimuloimisessa johtamiskäytänteet ja toimintatavat työyhteisöissä ovat mahdollisia keinoja vaikuttaa henkilöstötuottavuuden kehittymiseen työyhteisössä. Tutkielmassa henkilöstötuottavuutta kuvataan henkilöstötuottavuusindeksin (HTI) avulla. Menetelmä perustuu Ossi Auran ja muun tutkimusryhmän kehittämään malliin kuvata työyhteisön henkilöstötuottavuuden tilaa. Mallin keskeisiä piirteitä on jaotella henkilöstötuottavuus kolmen osatekijän summaksi: motivaatio, osaaminen ja työkyky. Tiedonkeruumenetelmänä henkilöstötuottavuusindeksin laskemiseksi toimii työyhteisöiden tilaa kuvaavien työyhteisökyselyiden hyödyntäminen. Yritysten taloudellista tilaa tarkastellaan tilinpäätöstietojen perusteella ja kannattavuuden indikaattorina toimii yrityksen käyttökateprosentti. Tutkimusmenetelmänä toimii pitkittäinen tutkimus. Aineisto on kerätty Työeläkeyhtiö Elon asiakkaille tarkoitetun työyhteisökyselyn avulla siten, että aineistoon valittu yritys on suorittanut vähintään kahdesti. Henkilöstötuottavuusindeksin ja yritysten taloudellisen tilanteen yhteyttä tarkastellaan lineaarista regressiomallia hyödyntäen. Empiirisessä osiossa tarkastelun kohteena on henkilöstötuottavuusindeksin ja yritystoiminnan kannattavuuden sekä henkilöstötuottavuusindeksin ja yritystoiminnan kasvun yhteys. Kannattavuuden muutosta kuvataan sekä käyttökateprosentin prosenttiyksiköittäisen että prosentuaalisen muutoksen avulla. Liiketoiminnan kasvua kuvataan liikevaihtoprosentin prosentuaalisen muutoksen avulla. Lineaarisen regressiomallin tuloksia tarkastellaan koko aineiston tasolla sekä osajoukkojen osalta valittujen määrittävien tekijöiden osalta. Tutkielman empiirisen osion tuloksien mukaan HTI:n muutoksien osalta, motivaatio on tärkein kolmesta osatekijästä. Itse tutkimuskysymyksen osalta saavutetut tulokset osoittavat, että henkilöstötuottavuuden ja yritysten kannattavuuden välillä ei havaita selkeää yhteyttä. Yhteyttä ei ole havaittavissa myöskään henkilöstötuottavuusindeksin ja liiketoiminnan kasvun väliltä. Tutkielman empiirinen osuus antaa hyvin perspektiiviä tutkittavaan ilmiöön ja antaa syytä aiempien tutkimusten tulosten kriittiselle tarkastelulle. Henkilöstötuottavuusindeksin muutoksien osalta motivaatio on tärkein kolmesta osatekijästä.
  • Siipola, Arttu (2023)
    This thesis explores the implications of Heterogeneous Agent New Keynesian (HANK) models for monetary policy by analyzing the existing literature and proposing a structural modification to a Two-Agent New Keynesian (TANK) model. The literature review offers an overview of the results of HANK models, starting from early contributions that first combined heterogeneity with nominal rigidities, revealing transmission channels of monetary policy that cannot be assessed with a representative agent framework. Subsequent studies build and use the HANK framework to examine these transmission channels more deeply, identifying the significant role of distributional effects in how monetary policy is transmitted to aggregate macroeconomic variables. The review also discusses the optimal monetary policy in HANK models, which focuses on minimizing idiosyncratic risk at the cost of inflation stability, and the role of HANK models in addressing the forward guidance puzzle. The thesis further examines TANK models as a simpler alternative to HANK models still being sufficient for capturing the effects of heterogeneity in New Keynesian models. By modifying a TANK model, this thesis aims to better align heterogeneity assumptions with empirical evidence on household types, particularly with the so-called wealthy hand-to-mouth households. This modification leads to the identification of a new feedback loop channel where investments in physical capital amplify the responses of aggregate variables. However, a structural dilemma arises where calibrations cannot guarantee the desired non-Ricardian response of consumption with a negative investment response. The thesis contributes to the understanding of the results and implications of different variations of HANK models for monetary policy, complementing existing theoretical discussions, and demonstrates the importance of heterogeneity assumptions in New Keynesian models.
  • Lohikainen, Ossi (2022)
    Labor market effects of military service have been a popular topic for economic research, and in a subset of these studies, interactions with elements like race, parental socioeconomic status, and ability have been submitted as considerations. Introducing an Mincer-type empirical model for framing the problem, I undertake a literature survey of studies concerning themselves with such treatment effect heterogeneities, complemented by a brief empirical survey using CPS data. It is found that, whether the overall effect of service is positive or negative, comparatively gains/non-losses in earnings and education tend to accrue to the disadvantaged individuals over advantaged ones. The plurality of studies correspondingly find positive-to-neutral effects along this gradient, although neutral-to-negative findings are also featured. The contexts under study commonly involve notable influence from educational subsidies and draft deferment incentives, but there are some counterfactuals, which however are unable to establish a definite causal mechanism between service and earnings or education. The main findings of the paper should be considered in making adjustments to existing compulsory service policies.
  • Viitaharju, Olli-Pekka (2020)
    Finanssikriisin seurauksena keskuspankkien rahapolitiikan liikkumavara on vähentynyt, mikä on johtanut vaihtoehtoisten rahapolitiikan strategioiden harkitsemiseen. Yksi ehdotetuista strategioista on siirtyminen hintatasotavoitteeseen. Hintatasotavoitteessa keskuspankki pyrkii pitämään hintojen kehityksen valitsemallaan tavoiteuralla ja korjaa inflaatiotavoitteesta poiketen menneiden shokkien aikaansaamat poikkeamat. Tutkielmassa tarkastellaan viimeaikaista tutkimusta hintatasotavoitteseen liittyen ja selvitetään voisiko hintatasotavoite olla parempi rahapolitiikan strategia kuin inflaatiotavoite. Tarkastelun keskiössä ovat hintatasotavoitteen vahvat oletukset, mahdolliset edut ja siirtymän riskit. Tutkimusmenetelmänä on kirjallisuuskatsaus ja tavoitteena on muodostaa kokonaiskuva tutkimuksesta ja selvittää mihin jatkotutkimus pitäisi suunnata. Hintatasotavoitteen mahdollisia etuja ovat hintojen pitkän aikavälin ennustettavuus, inflaation ja tuotannon volatiliteetin vähentyminen sekä parempi suoriutuminen nollakorkorajalla. Edut voivat olla haastavia saavuttaa ja ne nojaavat vahvoihin oletuksiin inflaatio-odotuksien muodostumisesta uuskeynesiläisen mallin mukaan sekä keskuspankin kyvystä sitoutua siihen strategiana. Hintatasotavoitteeseen siirtymiseen liittyy paljon riskejä ja kustannuksia, joiden seurauksena nettovaikutus voi olla negatiivinen. Talouden toimijat eivät välttämättä sisäistä uutta strategiaa, jolloin vaikutus inflaatio-odotuksiin jää vaimeaksi. Lisäksi se saattaa aiheuttaa haasteita keskuspankin kommunikaatiolle ja uskottavuuden ylläpitämiselle. Hintatasotavoite suoriutuu teoriassa inflaatiotavoitetta paremmin, mutta tulokset ovat malliriippuvaisia ja usein ristiriitaisia keskenään. Lisätutkimuksen tarpeet liittyvät inflaatio-odotuksien muodostumiseen, oppimisvaiheen kestoon ja keskuspankin uskottavuuden ylläpitämiseen. Keskuspankit näkevät hintatasotavoitteen riskit edelleen merkittävinä ja siirtymä olisi monella tapaa hyppy tuntemattomaan.
  • Koski, Maaria (2019)
    The measured gross domestic product, GDP, does not consider non-paid homework in its figures. However, the relative size of the so called household production is large both from time use perspective but also as monetary wise. According to Statistics Finland, the non-salaried homework was 39.8 % of the measured Finnish GDP in 2016. Moreover, Finns spent on average three hours and 21 minutes on daily basis on household production in 2009. Yet, the standard economic theory also excludes household production in the models although individuals are known to allocate their time between market work, homework and leisure. The real business cycle theory attempts to explain and study the properties of business cycles. In this Master’s Thesis, the household production is studied within the real business cycle (RBC) theory. The purpose is to compare the benefits of including household production into the real business cycle model to the standard alternative where it is excluded. Real business cycles are studied by constituting a dynamic stochastic general equilibrium model (DSGE) for both cases: one for the household production and one for the standard non-household production. The models constituted are for a frictionless closed economy. Both models are then calibrated with Finnish figures and simulated. The results indicate that market hours are procyclical in both models. However, the correlation between output and market hours is 1.33 times larger in the household production model than in the standard model. Also, the household production model generates highly countercyclical home hours. Yet, the Finnish time use data cannot prove the procyclicality of household production hours. The main reason is that the time use research is conducted only every ten years. Also, the timing of the research does not reconcile with the Finnish recessions. Hence, the data available cannot explain the countercyclical home hours indicated by the household production real business cycle model. In this sense, the results presented can only be taken as describing facts of the Finnish economy when household production is considered.
  • Kauhanen, Arttu (2019)
    In my thesis, I estimate the childhood exposure effects of regions in Finland on the probability of completing high school matriculation examination. I estimate the degree to which the differences in high school matriculation rates across regions are driven by the causal effects of places. I study almost 180,000 children who move across regions by exploiting variation in the age of children at the time of the move. I find that neighbourhoods might have a significant childhood exposure effect on girls of low-income families. The outcomes of girls of low-income families change linearly in proportion to the amount of time they spend growing up in a new area at a rate of approximately 6 % per year of exposure. It implies that children who move at birth would pick up 90 % of the difference in permanent residents’ outcomes between their origin and destination regions by the age of 16. The results for boys support the critical age model and imply that areas have no childhood exposure effects on boys: the outcomes of boys are unrelated to their age at the time of the move. This implies that the likelihood of boys to complete high school may be unaffected by the families' choices where to live, or boys are affected by the move to a new area at similar magnitude irrespective of the age at the time of the move. The estimation using data of all girls gives a less clear result, which might imply heterogeneity of exposure effects across parents' income levels. The results are robust to alternative specifications and to the overidentification test based on different birth cohorts.
  • Lähteenmaa, Juho (2020)
    In social sciences, as in health sciences, there is an increasing interest in exploring differences in treatment effects amongst subpopulations and even individuals. In many cases, researchers must rely on observational data where the assignment mechanism of the treatment is non-randomized. Nevertheless, by including a sufficient set of covariates in the used model, it is possible to draw a causal inference. However, some causal structures have proved to cause bias in the treatment effect estimates when particular pre-treated variables in them are conditioned. In existing literature there is no consensus as to how to treat these structures, especially in the heterogeneous treatment effect estimation case. The aim of this thesis is to explore how causal structures affect covariate selection in the heterogeneous treatment effect estimation context. The theoretical background of this subject is built on the potential outcomes framework and structural causal models. This thesis provides an overview of heterogeneous treatment effect estimation methods, including a more detailed view on the causal forest method. The second stage of the thesis is carried out by executing a simulation study where the causal forest method is applied with different causal structures. In each simulation, different sets of conditioned covariates are tested. The simulation study results prove almost consistent. In every simulation except one, a higher number of variables implicates improvement in performance. Surprisingly, this result is applicable even to the cases where structural causal models literature suggests not to condition all the variables. According to the results of the simulation study, a practical recommendation would be to include as many relevant pre-treated, non-instrumental variables in the model as possible. The results are in line with practical recommendations given in potential outcomes framework literature.
  • Taskinen, Kalle (2020)
    The number of unskilled workers working in Finnish manufacturing has been declining in recent years. From 2010 to 2017 the total number of workers in Finnish manufacturing declined by roughly 40 000 workers and the number of unskilled workers, as defined in this paper, declined by roughly 30 000 workers during the same time-period. This paper examines the role that outward foreign direct investment has played in the decline of the employment of unskilled workers in Finnish manufacturing over the years 2010-2017 and whether foreign direct investment directed to certain countries has contributed to the decline more than investment directed to other countries. Theories on international fragmentation of production suggest that the most unskilled labour-intensive processes are shifted to countries more abundant in unskilled labour. To estimate the effects of foreign direct investment on the number of unskilled workers working in Finnish manufacturing a dataset containing the average annual wage of all workers in Finnish manufacturing, the value of output, the value of the stock of machinery and the number of employees in foreign affiliates is used. The dataset covers the years 2010-2017.Turnover in foreign affiliates and the value of imported intermediate goods are used as alternative measures for foreign direct investment in separate models. The regression model is a first differences model where the number of unskilled workers is the dependent variable and the other variables mentioned above are the independent variables. The first differences models do not yield any statistically significant results and neither do alternative specifications used in this paper, which are a second differences estimator and a lagged effects estimator where the all other variables are differenced twice and the variable describing foreign direct investment is differenced once. These results do not necessarily mean that foreign direct investment has played no role in the decline of the number of unskilled workers working in Finnish manufacturing but the effects are not significant on an aggregated industry level. This question should be studied more carefully using more specific industry-level data or even firm-level data.
  • Togno, Francesca (2020)
    This thesis attempts to examine how much a representative consumer per each country is willing to pay to avoid global warming by analysing their welfare gains from having a smoother consumption path. Temperature variations affect economic activity, and consumption is subject to shocks related to global warming. I start by reviewing the economic literature that studied the relationship between temperatures and economic activity. I highlight which are the main effects on the economy that are correlated to rising temperatures and I review the methods that are usually employed by economists to assess environmental damages. I then take a sample of 163 countries and compute the welfare gains for each country for having a smoother consumption path, following the method used by Lucas (2003). To do this, I use country-level household consumption data and I set values for the risk aversion coefficient following the suggestions of the previous economic literature. I repeat the experiment with a smaller sample of 72 countries, this time using country-specific risk aversion coefficients retrieved from Gandelman and Hernández-Murillo (2015). In both cases, I obtain that most of the countries have welfare gains lying in the order of 10^-2 and 10^-3. Using annual temperature data, I test the Spearman correlation coefficient between welfare gains and average temperatures. Although the previous literature stressed the adverse effects of global warming on the economy, I find no significant correlation between these two variables. Countries that are more at risk do not display higher welfare gains than countries with a lower risk of imminent climate damages. To explain my results, I then consider determinants of risk aversion other than temperature and conclude that risk aversion, and consequently the value of welfare gains, can depend on several other factors.
  • Nyfors, Carmina (2024)
    Carbon pricing is gaining momentum across developing countries such as the Philippines. Along with its strong commitment to increase the shares of renewable energy sources and excise taxes on fuels already in place, the government passed the House Bill No. 4939 aiming to tax households Php 1 for every kilogram of $CO_2$ emission per kilowatt hour (kWh) of power consumption. This raises varying opinions in the public if carbon tax is necessary compared to the amount of emissions of the country as a whole, amounting only to .48\% of total global emissions. Existing literature yields diverse results on the progressiveness of carbon tax in terms of its distributional effects. Most developed countries with active carbon taxation prove it to be progressive across different income groups. However, in developing countries such as the Philippines, studies show varying outcomes -- some argue that carbon tax would be regressive and would hurt the most vulnerable populations. Others also say that it would most affect the middle class, while few conclude that it can progressive in some developing countries. The Almost Ideal Demand System (AIDS) is used in this thesis to determine the change in household consumption across different income groups in the Philippines. The results show a regressive reaction to the increase in the price of electricity. The simulation resulted to a nearly similar pattern in the overall changes in consumption by varying degrees. The changes are most substantial in the poorest and richest households, meanwhile slight changes in the middle groups. However, by taking the income and cross-price elasticity of demand, the commodities are determined to be whether a necessity or luxury good and a complement or substitute good. The maximizing household then decides from which commodities to cut back in order to compensate to the carbon tax on electricity. The lowest income has the most percentage increase in the consumption of electricity, compensating from the necessities such as food. The middle groups follow by less percentage increase. Meanwhile, the highest income decreases its budget share for electricity, making way to increase on its other more important expenses. The elasticity of demand for carbon-intensive goods plays a role in determining the distributional effects of a carbon tax. In this thesis, the Php 1 carbon tax would affect the lowest income household in substantial amount compared to their actual energy consumption. This concerns policy makers of the social equity, and fairness of carbon tax. The House Bill No. 4939, when approved, takes the first step to adapting carbon tax in the Philippines.
  • Parkkinen, Anniina (2022)
    Tutkielmassa tutkin kuluttajan valintakäyttäytymistä hyväntekeväisyydessä ja hyväntekeväisyysjärjestöjen käyttämiä tuuppauksia lahjoituksien lisäämiseksi. Tuuppauksilla tarkoitetaan mitä tahansa valinta-arkkitehtuurin muotoa, jolla voidaan vaikuttaa kuluttajan käyttäytymiseen kuluttajan valinnanvapauteen ja kustannuksiin koskematta. Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena on selvittää, miten tuuppaukset vaikuttavat hyväntekeväisyyslahjoituksiin. Jotta voidaan ymmärtää tuuppauksien muodostamaa kokonaisuutta, on tärkeää ensin ymmärtää, miten kuluttajat toimivat erilaisissa valintatilanteissa, ja miksi kuluttajat lahjoittavat hyväntekeväisyyteen. Hyväntekeväisyysjärjestöt käyttävät tuuppauksien avulla näitä tietoja apunaan kerätessään lisää lahjoituksia. Tutkimuksessa tarkastelen tarkemmin kolmea eri tuuppausstrategiaa verraten niitä muihin asiayhteyksiin. Näiden lisäksi tutkin, voiko aikaepäjohdonmukaisuutta käyttää tuuppauksena. Oikein käytettynä tuuppaukset ovat tehokkaita työkaluja, mutta ne ovat herkkiä muutoksille ja saattavat helposti aiheuttaa erilaisia heijastusvaikutuksia, jotka voivat näkyä negatiivisina sivuvaikutuksina. Tuuppaukset herättävät huolta niiden eettisyyden kannalta. Vaikka hyväntekeväisyydessä lahjoitukset menevät hyvään tarkoitukseen, onko eettisesti oikein käyttää hyväksi tietoa siitä, miten kuluttajat käyttäytyvät lahjoitustilanteissa.
  • Eklund, Marius (2022)
    Syyskuussa 2018 Nike julkaisi mainoskampanjan, jonka kasvona oli vahvasti mielipiteitä jakava Amerikkalaisen jalkapallon pelaaja Colin Kaepernick. Niken kampanja ei ole poikkeus, vaan poliittisesti latautuneisiin aiheisiin kantaa ottavista yrityksistä on enenevissä määrin esimerkkejä. Kannanotoilla ei ole välttämättä mitään yhteyttä yritysten tuotteisiin, joka indikoi selvästi sen lisääntynyttä tärkeyttä, mitä brändi edustaa ja mitä sen tuotteiden kuluttaminen tarkoittaa kuluttajan identiteetin kannalta. Tämän työn tarkoitus on tarkastella kuluttamista identiteettitaloustieteen kehyksessä. Identiteettitaloustiede perustuu sosiaalisen identiteetin teoriaan ja se tarjoaa työkaluja identiteetin roolin tutkimiseen taloudellisessa päätöksenteossa. Tutkielma esittelee identiteettitaloustieteen teorian, sen psykologisen taustan sekä relevanttia identiteettitaloustieteen tutkimusta. Identiteettiä kuluttamisessa käsitellään taloustieteen sekä markkinoinnin näkökulmasta ja esitellään kuluttamisen identiteettimalli. Nike:n mainoskampanjaa käytetään tapausesimerkkinä, joka tarjoaa esimerkin identiteettimallin käytännön applikaatiosta tilanteessa, jossa identiteetti selvästi vaikuttaa kuluttamiseen. Kuluttamisen identiteettimallin antamat tulokset ovat linjassa havaintojen kanssa, joiden mukaan Niken liikevaihto kasvoi mainoksen myötä merkittävästi, mutta ei radikaalisti. Identiteetti ja siihen liittyvät normit vaikuttavat kiistatta kuluttamiseen ja yritysten toimintaan, sillä siinä missä identiteetti ennen perustettiin työhön tai ammattiin, se perustetaan nykyään enenevissä määrin muihin asioihin, joita ilmaistaan kuluttamisen kautta. Yrityksillä on insentiivi muuttaa sosiaaliryhmiä tai niissä vallalla olevia normeja siten, että ihmiset kuluttaisivat heidän tuotteitaan enemmän. Kilpailluilla markkinoilla firmat voivat pyrkiä ankkuroimaan tuotteensa johonkin identiteettiin ja siten vähentää tuotteidensa korvaavuutta ja saada hinnoitteluvoimaa. On selvää myös, että poliitikot ja muut valtaa pitävät instituutiot ovat kiinnostuneita siitä, miten tiettyjen tuotteiden kulutukseen voidaan vaikuttaa, esimerkiksi miten vähennetään epäterveellisen ruoan syöntiä tai ilmastolle haitallisten tuotteiden kulutusta. Identiteetin ja kulutuksen välisen suhteen ymmärtäminen voi tarjota tähän uusia työkaluja ja käytäntöjä.
  • Kettunen, Vera (2023)
    Kartellit ovat yksi vakavimmista keinoista rajoittaa markkinoiden vapaata kilpailua. Tämän takia on tärkeää, että kilpailupolitiikalla pyritään torjumaan niitä mahdollisimman tehokkaasti. Tänä päivänä keskeinen kilpailupolitiikan väline kartellien torjumiseksi on leniency- eli ilmiantojärjestelmä. Ilmiantojärjestelmällä luodaan kartellin muodostaneille yrityksille kannustin ilmiantaa kartelli kilpailuviranomaiselle lupaamalla ilmiantavalle yritykselle esimerkiksi lievennys kartellista kiinnijäämisen myötä aiheutuvaan seuraamusmaksuun. Tässä tutkielmassa tarkastellaan, miten ilmiantojärjestelmä kartelleja torjuvana kilpailupolitiikan välineenä vaikuttaa yritysten kartellikäyttäytymiseen. Tutkielma on kirjallisuuskatsaus, jossa syvennytään aiempaan taloustieteelliseen kirjallisuuteen ilmiantojärjestelmistä. Ilmiantojärjestelmän vaikutusten yritysten kartelliin ryhtymisen ja sen ilmiantamisen kannustimiin tarkastelu aloitetaan käsittelemällä yksityiskohtaisesti Mottan ja Polon (2003) malli ilmiantojärjestelmästä. Tämän jälkeen perehdytään ilmiantojärjestelmiä käsittelevään kokeellisen taloustieteen empiriaan käymällä läpi Apesteguian, Dufwenbergin ja Seltenin (2007) sekä Hinloopenin ja Soeteventin (2008) tutkimukset. Kokeellisen taloustieteen empiriaa hyödyntäen voidaan vertailla erilaisia ilmiantojärjestelmiä sekä tarkastella, miten teoreettiset mallit mahdollisesti toimivat käytännössä. Huomataan, etteivät teoreettisten mallien ennusteet ja empiiriset tulokset ilmiantojärjestelmän toimivuudesta ja tehokkuudesta välttämättä ole yhteneväisiä. Tarkastelun perusteella havaitaan lisäksi, että ilmiantojärjestelmällä voidaan onnistua sekä saamaan kartellin jäsenet tekemään ilmianto että estämään kartellin muodostaminen kokonaan. Toisaalta on myös mahdollista, että ilmiantojärjestelmä kannustaa kartelliin ryhtymiseen, mikäli esimerkiksi ilmiantamisen seurauksena on mahdollista saada positiivinen palkkio. Ilmiantojärjestelmän ominaisuuksilla, kuten seuraamusmaksun alennuksen suuruudella, onkin keskeinen vaikutus siihen, miten ilmiantojärjestelmä vaikuttaa yritysten kartellikäyttäytymiseen. Tutkielman lopussa syvennytään pohtimaan keskeisiä ilmiantojärjestelmän ominaisuuksia. Yhteenvetona optimaalisen ilmiantojärjestelmän kiteytetään olevan kompromissi sen kartelleja torjuvan ja stabiloivan vaikutuksen välillä.
  • Karinluoma, Ada (2020)
    The turnover of heterogeneous firms has been shown to behave differently at business cycle frequencies. Traditionally it has been noted that the turnover of small firms is more procyclical. The evidence is however less unambiguous when it comes to more recent business cycle contractions, such as the financial crisis. Majority of the literature considers access to credit to be the driving force behind the differences in cyclicality. Due to asymmetrical information banks intermediating credit consider small firms to be riskier than large. During an economic downturn, safe investments are favored and thus the wedge in access to credit between large and small firms increases. The thesis consequently focuses on the impact of supply of credit on firms. More specifically, the study looks at the responses of firms of different size in Finland to unconventional monetary policy shocks by the European Central Bank (ECB). Unconventional monetary policy shocks are identified in several ways in the thesis. All approaches are based on a six-variate vector autoregressive (VAR) model. The euro wide variables are the gross domestic product (GDP), consumer prices, ECB’s balance sheet, financial stress measured by the Composite Indicator of Systemic Stress (CISS), the spread between the EONIA (Euro OverNight Index Average) and main refinancing operations (MRO) rates and the MRO rate. All variables are provided by either the ECB or Eurostat. The series were aggregated or interpolated to a monthly frequency and seasonally adjusted if needed. The turnover data for Finnish firms is from Statistics Finland. Sales inquiry data collected by Statistics Finland is used as the series for large firms. On the other hand, the series for small firms is based on value added tax data, which covers nearly the entire economy. The turnovers of large and small firms enter the baseline model one at a time. The thesis concentrates on a time period during which the unconventional measures have been in place, that is between January 2010 up until December 2018. In the thesis, the impact of unconventional monetary policy measures such as the targeted longer-term refinancing operations and the asset purchase programme is studied through the balance sheet of the ECB. Zero and sign restrictions are used to uncover the structural shocks. In the baseline identification, a shock to the central bank’s balance sheet is assumed to increase the size of the ECB’s balance sheet and decrease financial stress as well as the EONIA-MRO spread for two months. It is additionally assumed that the shock does not have affect GDP, prices and the MRO rate upon impact. The restrictions are implemented through a Bayesian rejection algorithm. The algorithm draws a variance-covariance decomposition from the posterior distribution of the model and checks whether is produces impulse responses that fulfill the restrictions. The results are represented as the median response of the accepted draws. The results indicate that a shock to the balance sheet of the ECB increases the turnovers of both small and large Finnish firms. The positive impact manifests in two stages; it peaks some three months after the shock for the first time and later again. The impact on small firms is at its highest within 12 months of the innovation. The response of the turnover of large firms is less pronounced directly after the shock but lasts for longer. In summary, the results suggest that the impact is stronger for small firms but more persistent for large. Therefore, the thesis concludes that unconventional monetary policy measures have not benefited small Finnish firms disproportionately.
  • Annala, Emmi (2019)
    The topic of this thesis is to explore the impact of immigration on the task specialization of natives. According to the literature, immigration does not have a significant negative impact on the employment nor the wages of natives. A one possible reason for this can be imperfect substitutability which means that natives and immigrants with similar education are not perfect substitutes and thus, they do not compete for the same jobs. Natives may have a comparative advantage in interactive tasks and immigrants in manual tasks. An exact research question is to investigate if less educated natives locate to less manual and more interactive jobs as the shares of similarly educated foreign-born people rise. This is implemented by constructing variables which describe the manual and interactive task intensities of different occupation classes. Peri and Sparber (2009) and Amuedo-Dorantes and de la Rica (2011) have investigated similar questions and therefore, their studies are the main references of this thesis. The data of this study is provided by Ipums International and O*Net data from the US Department of Labor. The first of these two is census microdata from France and it includes eight samples between the years 1962 and 2011. The second dataset contains numerical values which describe the importance of different abilities of different occupations. The analysis is made by applying the method of ordinary least squares and the method of instrumental variables. The instrumental variable for the shares of foreign-born workers is formed by imputing the shares of immigrants from several source countries, based on the distribution of immigrant groups across regions in the year 1962. The results support the hypothesis rather well. A one percentage point increase in the foreign-born share of less educated labour force lowers the manual-to-interactive task ratio of natives by approximately two percentages on average. However, the results regarding to different demographic groups are varied. The most unexpected observation is that the share of female immigrants affects the task specialization of both male and female natives much more than share of male immigrants does. In addition, education, age, the industry of occupation, and the business cycle of an economy seem to have impact on the possibilities of natives to shift to less manual and more interactive tasks. The results suggest that inflows of less educated immigrants indeed push less educated natives towards less manual and more interactive jobs. Nonetheless, because the estimates of previous studies have been smaller, it is likely that the estimates of this thesis are biased upward and the real impact of immigration on the task specialization of natives is more moderate.