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Botulism is a potentially fatal flaccid paralysis in animals and humans. The disease is caused by botulinum neurotoxins (BoNTs) produced by endospore-forming bacteria of Clostridium botulinum Groups I-IV, or occasionally by Clostridium baratii and Clostridium butyricum. C. botulinum spores prevail in the environment and can contaminate food raw materials. BoNT production may occur in anaerobically stored foods, in the gastrointestinal tract, or in deep wounds. Here we take a novel insight into the regulation of BoNT synthesis through epigenetic control. Epigenetic studies in bacteria focus mostly on DNA methylation catalysed by enzymes called methyltransferases (MTases), which recognize specific DNA sequence motifs and methylate either an adenine or a cytosine base. While most MTases are part of restriction-modification systems involved in defending the cells from foreign mobile DNA elements, there are orphan MTases that methylate DNA to control gene expression. Here we characterized the role of a conserved orphan MTase, M.CboAII, in C. botulinum Group I. In order to unravel the biological role of M.CboAII, a m.cboAII deletion mutant of the proteolytic C. botulinum model strain ATCC 19397 was characterized. The growth, sporulation, cell morphology and neurotoxin production in the Δm.cboAII mutant and its parental strain were compared by measuring the culture density, vegetative cell and spore counts, microscopy, and toxin quantification using an immunological in vitro assay. The mutant showed decreased toxin synthesis and attenuation of sporulation, whereas culture density and cell numbers were similar compared to the parental strain. Further, irregularly shaped mutant cells were detected, which may suggest membrane alterations. Our results suggest that M.CboAII plays a positive role in toxin synthesis and in sporulation. Transcriptomic analysis of ATCC 19397 and Δm.cboAII mutant strains at different stages of growth will help us to uncover the cellular processes controlled by M.CboAII in more detail. Here we take the first glance into epigenetic regulation of cellular processes in C. botulinum. We report a potentially novel regulatory mechanism involved in C. botulinum toxinogenesis and sporulation. Better understanding of these fundamental processes controlling the pathogenicity of C. botulinum may help to develop novel strategies in food and health management in the future.

Cancer patients have a manifold risk of suffering from both thrombotic events and anticoagulation-related bleeding complications. For this reason, knowledge of their adequate medication is crucial. The aims of this study were to find out are guidelines being followed regarding the treatment of venous thromboembolisms. The emphasis was on the anticoagulation therapy of cancer patients, but also non-cancer patients were analyzed as controls. Data was collected from the clinical information system Uranus CGI. All patient records (with the diagnostic codes I26.0, I67.6, I74.3, I80*, I81*, I83*, K55, N28.0, 022.3) in the hospital district of Helsinki and Uusimaa (Jorvi, Meilahti, Peijas, Lohja, Porvoo, Tammisaari and Hyvinkää hospitals) during the time period 1.1.2014- 29.4.2016 were reviewed. Statistical analysis was performed using the IBM SPSS Statistics and Microsoft Excel computer softwares. The study included 1667 patients, out of whom 163 (9.8%) had active cancer. The recommendation of using low molecular weight heparins as the primary anticoagulants for patients with malignancies has been practiced. More research is necessary in order to find the optimal duration for treatment of, especially, isolated calf muscle venous thromboses and cancer patients' superficial thrombophlebitides.

Social capital theory highlights the value of social networks in encouraging cooperation and facilitating change. However, research within this field rarely undertakes a communicative approach to social capital, which ignores the importance of communication in supporting understanding and connections in social interactions. The narrative paradigm is one facet of communication theory but it has considerable pertinence to this research because stories both define and connect us. When narratives are experienced they provide common purpose and action. Nonprofit organizations are another crucial element to understanding the interconnection between social capital and narratives because they provide a space for individuals to build a sense of belonging and solidarity. The primary objective of this paper is to analyze how a nonprofit organization’s narratives foster social capital. This research was a case study of the nonprofit organization HeSeta based in Helsinki, Finland. The data was collected through several in-person interviews, HeSeta’s website, HeSeta’s official Facebook page, and public organizational documents. The results indicate that narratives foster social capital by establishing reasons to connect and interact, creating basic responsibilities to one another and encouraging action together. The creation of shared goals, values, obligations, expectations, and identification helps to build norms of trust, honesty, reciprocity, which establish and sustain a social network and its narratives. The study encourages the development of more critical formations of organizational narratives in nonprofit organizations’ communication to their stakeholders and community, which prioritizes social capital, to help encourage greater interaction and collective action.

Tiivistelmä — Referat — Abstract Intestine renews itself from intestinal stem cells (ISCs) in response to cell damage and disease. Damaged and dead cells are replaced by ISCs through cell division followed by daughter cell differentiation. Disturbances in this process can lead to diseases such as cancer. Hexosamine biosynthetic pathway (HBP) is a mediator of systemic insulin signaling induced ISC proliferation. However, the full molecular mechanism of HBP mediated ISC proliferation is yet to be discovered. Deciphering the mechanisms of the regulation responsible for ISC renewal could pave way for disease etiology dependent on the rate of ISCs proliferation. In this project I use Drosophila genetic tools to elucidate transcriptional and translational level control of HBP regulated ISC proliferation. Glutamine Fructose-6-phosphate Amidotransferase (GFAT) activity limits the rate of N-Acetylglucosamine GlcNAc and consequently ISC proliferation. Thus, gfat2Δ1 mutant flies are used to study molecular regulation of HBP. Full midguts of Drosophila will be imaged using Aurox Clarity Spinning-disc Confocal system. Confocal 3D images will be analyzed using an image analysis software called linear analysis of midgut (LAM) to retain region specific data. Exploring ISC proliferation in relation to nutrient sensing pathways in the full midgut level is still novel and LAM provides region specific data in previously unprecedented detail. The end product of HBP pathway Uridine diphosphate N-acetylglucosamine (UDP-GlcNAc) was supplemented within the diet of the flies to observe its effect to the gfat2Δ1 ISC phenotype. UDP-GlcNac did not rescue the gfat2Δ1 ISCs. Usage of Drosophila genetic tools elucidated previously unknown transcriptional level regulation of HBP induced ISC proliferation: ATF4 knockdown in gfat2Δ1 mutant ISCs rescued gfat2Δ1 attenuated ISC division. In addition, ATF4 was indicated to possibly regulate the gfat2Δ1 phenotype via the regulation of growth through ribosome biogenesis and 4EBP translation inhibition. This study revealed the mediator of HBP, the transcription factor ATF4 to be the modulator of ISC proliferation.

Peatlands are ecosystems of global importance for biodiversity conservation. Peatlands are wetland ecosystems which provide a critical habitat for many rare and specialized species. Biodiversity maintains the provision of ecosystem services, which are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems. The loss of biodiversity and peatland degradation constitute global challenges. One of the main reasons why biodiversity loss and peatland degradation remain challenges is nested in the failure to account for the range of economic benefits of ecosystem services and biodiversity in relevant policy making. The role of peatlands in maintaining global biodiversity has often been underestimated in global, regional and local land use planning and conservation measures. This thesis undertakes a systematic literature review on the empirical economic valuation literature on peatland ecosystem services and biodiversity. The two main aims of this literature review are to synthesize the current state of knowledge on this phenomenon and analyse the role of biodiversity in the economic valuation of peatland ecosystem services by answering specific research questions. This systematic literature review employs the data of 23 peer-reviewed English language papers published between 2006 and June 2021. The studies were chosen for analysis based on a selected search strategy and screening process. The data analysis was undertaken using the qualitative data analysis software Atlas.ti which is a tool used to help organize analysed material with the help of descriptive codes. Based on the findings of this thesis, the inclusion of biodiversity in the economic valuation of peatland ecosystem services has become a standard procedure. This is showcased by the number of studies applying stated preference approaches. The sample included studies applying different valuation methods in order to value many ecosystem services. The studies including biodiversity in economic valuation often find that biodiversity conservation policies can be cost-effective, and that people are generally willing to pay for biodiversity conservation and would derive economic benefits from this. Biodiversity is included in the studies as different elements, mainly as a specific species or as a reference to wildlife. Biodiversity is also found to be closely related to cultural ecosystem services and their benefits. Many studies find that people value familiar peatland landscapes, and biodiversity plays an important part in defining that value. Some studies find that human activity plays an important role in maintaining biodiversity in semi-natural peatland landscapes. Hence, biodiversity conservation needs to be in some accordance with local interests. Biodiversity provided founding principles for policy making, but previously implemented practices, such as existing conservation measures and the extractive use of peatlands exerted much influence on final economic values. Moreover, biodiversity plays different roles in determining the objectives of the studies. Eight studies use biodiversity as the justification for conducting the economic analysis. Most studies include biodiversity as a study component among others under valuation. The portrayal of biodiversity influences the focus of the studies and how biodiversity contributes to the findings of the literature. The body of literature on the economic valuation of peatland ecosystem services remains small. The geographical distribution of the sample is skewed towards Europe and Southeast Asia. There is a notable upward trend in the number of studies which have been published in the last five years. The literature demonstrates that the economic valuation of peatland ecosystem services and the need to adopt sustainable peatland management with biodiversity conservation have become relevant and topical issues in policy making. There is a significant need to address the issue of peatland degradation and biodiversity loss by increasing awareness. Further research is needed to establish a more comprehensive understanding of the links between peatlands, ecosystem services and their values. In addition, future research could study how the provision of information and the contribution of biodiversity awareness and knowledge influence economic valuation.

This study provides an analysis on the role of communications in enhancing tax compliance from building an overall view of OECD’s Forum of Tax Administration’s member countries’ tax administrations’ perceptions about communications’ role on improving tax compliance. Prior to this study, there was no comprehensive view about the state of communications in the aforementioned countries. This study examines the perceptions of tax administration communications departments on whether tax compliance can be improved by means of communication. In the recent tax-related theories, there are two ways of encouraging the payment of taxes: coercive power and trust. According to theories, trust can be increased by the transparency that modern government communication is nowadays very much aimed towards. The tax communication units of OECD’s Forum of Tax Administrations' member countries' tax administrations were viewed in regards of organisational factors, communication practices and strategic approaches. This study has been carried out as a quantitative observational study targeting the members of the aforementioned network. An online survey was used to collect the data and was sent to the member countries in 2017 and 2018. This way it was possible to gain further insight with the year-by-year comparison. In addition, the data obtained through the survey was compared to other materials such as the OECD's Tax Administration Series. Key concepts and theories are related to tax compliance, government communication as well as transparency and trust. One of the key findings of the study is that the size of the tax administrations does not have impact on communications departments’ perceptions or activities on enhancing tax compliance with communications. Seems that tax administrations have not been able to leverage the economics of scale communications-wise. All of the tax administrations perceived their communications to be successful despite the variance in their actual performance within strategic goals, usage of different media channels or monitoring their performance. However, tax administrations’ attitudes towards transparency have moved in a positive direction within one year. According to the results, communication measurements are underutilised, as they could be reflected more with the goals and directions of communication strategies. The link between strategic objectives and practice is broken, despite the fact that tax administrations use a wide range of different service channels, marketing communicational tools as well as social networks when communicating towards tax payers and stakeholders. With this in mind, it can be said that on a general level, tax administrations are well prepared for the challenges of the new information age and its pressures for more transparency, but do not necessarily have the optimal organisational setting for it yet.

The APOE4 gene variant of apolipoprotein E (apoE) has been identified as a predisposing factor for late-onset Alzheimer’s disease (AD). ApoE is known to interact with one of the classically characterized hallmarks of AD, the amyloid-beta (Aβ) protein. Aβ activates the classical complement pathway by binding to C1q that may sustain inflammation, hamper Aβ clearance and therefore promote accumulation of Aβ deposits in the brain and affect the integrity of the blood-brain barrier. Depending on context, binding of apoE to C1q can either activate or inhibit complement activation. ApoE can also interact with the complement regulator factor H (FH) which colocalizes with C1q on Aβ plaques. The interactions between these proteins and their role in the AD pathogenesis has not been fully explored. This thesis aimed at unraveling the complex formation between Aβ1-42, apoE, FH, and C1q, and their role in complement activation to provide novel insights on the mechanisms contributing to AD pathophysiology. By conducting enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and Western Blotting of native PAGE, I was able to show that FH bound to apoE and forms a complex with Aβ1-42/apoE in an isoform- specific manner (apoE2 > apoE3 > apoE4) whereas C1q bound all Aβ1-42/apoE complexes with same affinity. FH did not bind Aβ1-42 alone, thus the results indicated that binding of FH in Aβ1-42/apoE complex took place via apoE2 and apoE3. In the absence of FH and C1q, immobilized Aβ1-42/apoE4 complexes led to higher serum complement activation levels when compared to Aβ1-42/apoE2 and Aβ1-42/apoE3 complexes or Aβ1-42 alone. C1q activated serum complement especially in the presence of Aβ1-42/apoE3 and Aβ1-42/apoE4. Further functional analysis with flow cytometry revealed that in fluid phase the presence of FH could restrict Aβ1-42-induced complement activation, the subsequent formation of C5a and activation of C5a receptor (C5aR) expressed on Human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293 cells. The presence of all apoE isoforms on Aβ1-42/C1q complexes led to reduced C5aR activation. Surprisingly, however, the reduction was the largest with apoE4, and the presence of C1q on Aβ1-42 alone could also decrease C5aR activation. The results of this thesis elucidated the effects of Aβ1-42, apoE, C1q and FH in complement activation and proposed a mechanism by which FH regulates complement activation and cell-mediated inflammation through isoform-specific binding to apoE associated with Aβ1-42. Further work is required to analyze the functional effects of these complexes, whether Aβ1-42, apoE, FH, and C1q can all bind simultaneously to form a large complex and whether this complex affects C5aR activation. This study provides important insights on how APOE4 may predispose to the neurotoxicity and neuroinflammatory changes in AD pathophysiology early in the disease process. Yet, the findings are only preliminary and therefore further studies are required to validate these results and to demonstrate whether promoting FH binding to apoE/Aβ complex could provide a novel target for AD therapy.

The purpose of this research was to investigate the role of electronic word of mouth (eWOM) in shaping consumer attitudes towards various products and services with concentration on the consumer attitude change. eWOM has long been proven to play an important role in influencing consumer attitudes and has been researched from a variety of perspectives. This study attempts to look deeper into the process of consumer attitude change by applying as the central theory of the study the Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion by Petty and Cacioppo. In the processes of examining the background academic and empirical research the Internet and Web 2.0 are closely depicted in order to understand how throughout the past centuries technology allowed the rise of various mediums where consumers can not only share their opinions online about products and services but also communicate with other consumers. Manuel Castel’s Internet Galaxy, Gildin’s, Carl and Noland’s, Hennig-Thurau, Gwinner, Walsh and Gremler’s researches on eWOM are the central works that helped to shape both the theoretical and empirical parts of this study. The mixed method approach was chosen as a research method for this study. An online survey was conducted via the Surveymonkey.com platform and eight qualitative in-depth interviews were conducted. The results of the study show that central route queues as text quality and text argumentativeness are more prominent among the research subjects and the peripheral route queues: source credibility and source expertise did not show considerable significance. Also more experience and participation consumers have with user-rating websites and applications more inclined they are to elaborate on the central route cues and are more likely to search for opinions that they consider rational and credible. Also these respondents are less inclined to search for ratings that confirm their existing beliefs about products or services. Less experience/participation they have about eWOM more likely they are to search for reviews confirmatory to their own.

The relationship between employee job satisfaction and customer satisfaction and the impact of these measures on the profitability of a company has been studied extensively. It has been shown that for companies with high levels of job satisfaction, customer satisfaction can be higher compared to companies with lower levels of employee job satisfaction. Similarly, previous works have documented that customer satisfaction can improve the profitability of a company. Furthermore, some scholars have found that job satisfaction enhances customer satisfaction while some have found an impact with opposite direction. This Master’s thesis was conducted with the aim to find out how job satisfaction, customer satisfaction and profitability are related in the Finnish grocery retail industry. The empirical part of the study consists of analyses of employee satisfaction and customer satisfaction surveys that were conducted by third parties before this master thesis was started. These surveys were combined and matched with profitability data, where operating margin was used as a proxy for profitability. This combined data is based on 374 Finnish supermarket grocery stores which means approximately one third of all stores in this category. As the sales of supermarkets is together nearly one half of the Finnish grocery sales, is this study representing about one sixth of all grocery purchases of Finns. The study applied the service-profit chain model (Heskett et al., 2008) as a conceptual framework. The model considers the interrelationships between internal service quality of the company, job satisfaction, retention of employees, productivity of employees, external service value, customer satisfaction, customer loyalty, revenue growth and profitability. The main research method applied was qualitative comparative analysis (Fs/QCA). The results suggest that the internal service quality of the company under investigation has an impact on the job satisfaction of employees. Job satisfaction improved when the employees experienced their job interesting and felt that the work they do is important. In addition, especially the work atmosphere but also leadership and good work conditions positively influence job satisfaction. According to this study, job satisfaction did not, however, have a direct impact on customer satisfaction, efficiency or profitability of the company. Customer satisfaction increased customer loyalty as expected. In light of this study, and for the specific context investigated, it seems possible by the focal company to positively affect employee job satisfaction by supporting a good work atmosphere. Although this research found no robust evidence on the relationships between job satisfaction and customer satisfaction, job satisfaction and efficiency of the company nor job satisfaction and company profitability, it is notable that the analyses gave some indication that work atmosphere, leadership and good work conditions might have a positive impact on financial performance of the focal company. These are the same factors that were highlighted as drivers of job satisfaction. Thus, the inter-relationship between these concepts should be further explored in the future.

Social networking services have become an increasingly central way for people to interact with each other. Facebook, the most popular social networking service in the world, is believed to support the maintenance and creation of social relationships. In order to understand the way these services influence social relationships it is important to take into account the personal uniqueness of the people using them. At the same time concerns have been raised about the development of social capital. Being in contact has never been easier and yet people spend more time alone than before. In this study the relationship between the intensity of Facebook usage, personality trait extraversion and three types of social capital (bridging, bonding and maintained) were studied. The aim was to see whether the intensity of Facebook usage is associated with individuals’ perceived social capital and to examine if extraversion affects this association. The theoretical framework of this study consists of social capital theory and trait theory of personality. They are applied to the context of information and communications technology research. The data was gathered using an online survey (N = 487). The sample consists of adult Finnish Facebook users. Most of the respondents were female (72 %) and students (89 %). The analyses were made using factor analysis and multiple regression analysis. The main finding is that the intensity of Facebook usage is positively associated with perceived bridging and maintained social capital. In addition, extraversion was found to be positively associated with bridging and maintained social capital, even more so than Facebook intensity. However, the relationship between extraversion and social capital is mediated by the intensity of Facebook usage. This means that extraversions relation with social capital can partly be explained by the influence of the intensity of Facebook usage. Moreover, the relationship between the intensity of Facebook usage and bridging social capital is moderated by extraversion. This means that the relationship is stronger for people who perceived themselves as less extraverted in comparison to people who perceived themselves as highly extraverted. Bonding social capital was not found to be a reliable scale so it was deleted from the analyses. These findings support the idea that Facebook can be a useful tool to support the formation and maintenance of individual’s bridging and maintained social capital. It can be particularly useful for people who do not perceive themselves as highly extraverted. Main sources: Ellison, N. B., Steinfield, C. and Lampe, C. (2007). The Benefits of Facebook 'friends:' Social Capital and College Students’ use of online social networking sites. Putnam, R. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. Wilson, R. E., Gosling, S. D. and Graham, T. L. (2012). A Review of Facebook Research in the Social Sciences. Hanifi, R. (2015). Sosiaaliset suhteet järjestäytyvät uudelleen. Hamburger, Y. A. and Ben-Artzi, E. (2000). The relationship between extraversion and neuroticism and the different uses of the Internet.