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Under article 13 (b) of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, the United Nations Security Council (SC) may refer to the International Criminal Court (ICC) a situation in which one or more crimes within the Court’s jurisdiction appear to have been committed. Since the entry into force of the Rome Statute, the SC has referred two situations to the Court: the situation in Darfur in 2005, and the situation in Libya in 2011. The SC referral mechanism allows the ICC to consider situations in non-party States, such as Sudan and Libya. Even though the adoption of the SC referrals was praised at first, the referral mechanism has proven problematic in many regards. Both SC Resolution 1593 (2005) on Darfur and SC Resolution 1970 (2011) on Libya have been subject to criticism because of their weaknesses. The greatest points of criticism relate to the financing of the Court’s activities and State cooperation. Following the referrals, the ICC initiated investigations on the situations in Darfur and Libya, and subsequently issued arrest warrants for persons considered to be responsible for the crimes committed. Despite the arrest warrants issued, none of the suspects have been arrested and surrendered to the ICC. The purpose of this study is to assess the SC referral mechanism in light of the two existing referrals and to identify and examine problems concerning said mechanism. In order to understand the problems related to the SC referral mechanism, the complex relationship between the ICC and the SC is examined in Chapter 2. The ICC is an independent institution established by a treaty between States. However, as the two organizations have overlapping mandates, coordination between the activities of the ICC and the SC is necessary. Therefore, the Rome Statute creates a link between the organizations by allowing the SC to trigger the juris- diction of the Court. In this context, the legal framework governing the relationship between the two institutions and the nature of SC referrals are examined. In addition, Chapter 2 assesses the funding of the Court’s activities following a SC referral. Chapter 3 considers the jurisdiction of the Court and the mechanisms available to initiate proceedings in the ICC. As the jurisdic- tion of the ICC with respect to a certain situation is not pre-determined, it can be triggered by State Parties, the SC or the Prosecu- tor. Emphasis is placed on the SC referral mechanism and its differences with the other trigger mechanisms. In addition, issues of admissibility are considered. Particular attention is paid to the principle of complementarity, because as the underlying principle of the Rome Statute, it affects the different stages of the ICC proceedings. In light of the existing referrals, Chapter 4 analyses State cooperation with the Court, and how it has proven one of the main prob- lems for the Court. The ICC does not have its own enforcement mechanisms, which is why it is dependent on the assistance of States in the arrest of suspects and the gathering of evidence. Yet, States have been reluctant to cooperate with the Court follow- ing the SC referrals. In order to explain the lack of cooperation, the study examines and compares the cooperation regimes pursu- ant to the Rome Statute and the relevant SC resolutions. In particular, it attempts to identify the content of the cooperation obliga- tions of Sudan and Libya, State Parties, and non-party States to the Rome Statute. As the ICC’s jurisdiction is complementary to national jurisdictions, the effect of the principle of complementarity on cooperation is also assessed. Under certain grounds, States may refuse or postpone their cooperation obligations with the Court. As examples of exemptions from the cooperation obligation, the effect of national proceedings and head of state immunity are considered. Chapter 4 concludes with an assessment of the enforcement mechanisms available in case the ICC makes a finding of non-compliance.

The EU integration has been spreading into the area of security. One of the most recent actions by the EU in this area is Directive (EU) 2022/2557 on the resilience of critical entities (the CER Directive). However, the EU’s competence to act in this area has been called into question as the Treaties do not provide an express competence. Similarly to several other security measures, the CER Directive was adopted using Art 114 TFEU as its legal basis. This thesis focuses on the topic of using Art 114 TFEU as a legal basis for security measures. It will be argued that although framed as a market measure, the background, context, and content of the CER Directive point towards a security aim. However, it seems that problems related to other potential legal bases, such as Art 196 TFEU on civil protection, left Art 114 TFEU effectively being the only available option for a measure such as the CER Directive. It is noted that the case law on Art 114 TFEU indicates that there are very few limits to its use, and therefore, it seems that it provides a valid legal basis also for the CER Directive. This thesis argues that while Art 114 TFEU may provide a lucrative shortcut to avoid competence and legal basis problems, its use for security measures is another example of the phenomenon called competence creep and may lead to some negative implications regarding. It will also be argued that the EU’s actions limit Member States' sovereignty, while also noticing that there are signs that the Member States have silently approved this development. In the end, it will be argued that masking security measures as market measures may negatively affect the effectiveness of protection and may send an unfortunate message that markets are regarded as a priority over the well-being of people.

This thesis discusses the use of English conceptual metaphors in political speeches, specifically focusing on the domains that are used in the policy-related speeches of the Council of the European Union (EU) during the Finnish Presidency term in 2019. Furthermore, the current study takes a cognitive linguistic approach, where political discourse is considered as a product of individual and collective mental processes. The cognitive account explains that metaphor is a part of the human conceptualisation system and not just a stylistic expression of oratory and literature. Moreover, it is thought that metaphor works as a mapping from well-understood source domains of experience to more abstract target domains of cultural knowledge. The four priorities of the Finnish presidency term (the rule of law, sustainable development, climate action, and security) serve as the topics of the analysis. Moreover, the data of this thesis consists of nine speech articles collected and preprocessed from the online publications of the Prime Minister’s Office using programming tools in Python. After pre-processing, the data was organised with a spreadsheet tool, for manual qualitative analysis. First, the metaphorical expressions were identified using the Metaphor Identification Procedure (Pragglejaz Group, 2007) followed by categorisation according to the two-domain mapping model, which is a key element of Conceptual Metaphor Theory (Lakoff and Johnson 1980a). In other words, as the study aimed to describe how the use of metaphorical expressions contributes to the framing of statements made by Finnish government officials, metaphorical expressions were first identified at the individual level of the analysis. Then, following the bottom-up approach, the metaphorical expressions were categorised into the two-domain metaphor types on the supraindividual level. Lastly, the metaphors were further grouped together in relation to emotional and experiential aspects at the subindividual level to provide the most characteristic and easily comprehensible examples to discuss the research questions as well as reduce the possibility of confirmation bias. In summary, the nine speech articles analysed for this thesis included 222 cases identified as metaphors and 102 instances marked under a mixed category. The four most used metaphor types in the nine articles were PURPOSEFUL ACTIVITY IS TRAVELLING ALONG A PATH TOWARDS A DESTINATION (n=26), UNDERSTANDING IS SEEING (n=23), CHANGE IS MOTION (n=21), and ATTENTION IS PROXIMITY (n=15). Furthermore, the most used metaphors do support the consensus-building nature of the speeches as they are used to display shared beliefs and motivate the audience to act together to achieve the desired future goals. The qualitative analysis revealed some more distinct uses of conceptual metaphors regarding specific topics. In the rule of law discourse, CONTAINER metaphors were used to discuss the measures and extent to which EU legislation extends, whereas the talk around the second priority, sustainable development, was characterised by the use of BUILDING as well as SEEING metaphors as speakers emphasised the importance of shared efforts to build a more sustainable future. For climate action, the discussion was most clearly dominated by the MOTION AND JOURNEY metaphors, which was expected since climate change is an ongoing process that the world has dealt with over many years and governmental periods. Lastly, the fourth priority, security, was mostly addressed in terms of the MOTION AND JOURNEY metaphors, but also PERSON metaphors. Previous research on conceptual metaphors suggests that metaphors influence our ideological flexibility by helping people to understand abstract issues by grounding them in something more familiar, but the conceptualisation may also infuse attitudes with subjective confidence that makes them highly resistant to change, I argue it is important to study the ways metaphors are used to generate new perspectives on persistent problems in addition to those that reinforce and defend conclusions and ideologies. As a result, this thesis sheds light on the way the representative ministers of the Finnish presidency talked about abstract contexts and what kind of conceptualisations are used in their international political discussion regarding the matters of the Council of the EU.

The use of antimicrobials in livestock production has shown to increase the abundance of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in animal microbiomes. The use of manure as a fertilizer is essential in animal agriculture, however, manure application disseminates ARGs to the farm environment. In soil, the ARGs could be horizontally transferred to the environmental bacteria. Antimicrobial resistance is currently mitigated by limiting the use of antimicrobials for animals; thus, it is important to examine the ARG dynamics in countries where antimicrobial use is restricted. In addition to the antimicrobial use, also manure application rates are tightly regulated in Finnish dairy farming, offering suitable sites for examining the transmissions of ARGs in response to agricultural practices. The main aim of this study was to determine the host range of three antibiotic resistance genes by culture-independent epicPCR to understand the fate of antimicrobial resistance in agricultural environments. The cells were extracted from manure and soil samples taken from two Finnish dairy farms. Aminoglycoside (strB), beta-lactam (blaOXA-58) and tetracycline (tetM) resistance genes were linked with a phylogenetic marker gene to determine the host bacteria using epicPCR. Results were compared to the total bacterial community. In total, 664 OTU’s were linked to ARGs. Antibiotic resistance genes strB and tetM shared six host genera and three genera were found to carry all the studied genes. The most common host genera for tetM were Escherichia-Shigella, Sedimentibacter and Fibrobacter. For blaOXA-58, the most common hosts were Sphingobacterium and Acinetobacter. Acinetobacter, Pseudomonas and Psychrobacter carried strB genes in all studied samples. For the first time the host range of ARGs in manure and soil communities were determined by epicPCR, providing also valuable information for further improving comparatively new method.

The emerging crisis of antimicrobial resistance is especially worrisome in low-income countries that lack controlled antibiotic policy and have poor infrastructure. Inadequate hygiene practices combined with ability of microbes to quickly evolve and adapt to changes rise the concern of resistance of infectious pathogens to many first-line antimicrobial drugs. Moreover, wastewaters that are widely used as irrigation water in urban gardening in sub-Saharan Africa, can function as vehicle for the dissemination of bacteria that carry antimicrobial resistance genes into the surrounding environment. In this study, eight anthropogenically impacted water samples were collected from Burkina Faso and Mali and differences in their microbial communities were evaluated by 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Also, the presence of antimicrobial resistance genes was examined with SmartChip qPCR. The bacterial host range of blaNDM, blaCTX-M, blaOXA and qacE∆1 was profiled using a novel culture- independent technique, Emulsion, Paired Isolation and Concatenation PCR (epicPCR). The presence of 202 genes associated with antimicrobial resistance were detected with SmartChip qPCR array analysis, including carbapenemase genes that can transfer horizontally. Worryingly, sixteen taxonomical units, including possible human pathogens Acinetobacter, Klebsiella, Escherichia and Pseudomonas, were found to carry all the four genes investigated with epicPCR. The most abundant genus Arcobacter along with Dechloromonas, Methylotenera, MM1 and Methylophilus were new discoveries as blaNDM hosts. Furthermore, a considerable number of blaOXA and clinical class 1 integron marker qacE∆1 gene hosts were discovered in every sample. Lastly, putative events of horizontal gene transfer in two WWTP samples were observed. Broad host range of blaOXA and qacE∆1 genes suggests a heavy antimicrobial resistance genes burden in West Africa and the results support the theory that environmental bacteria can function as resistance gene reservoirs. These results show occurrence of horizontally transferrable blaNDM and blaCTX-M genes in pathogens especially in hospital wastewater, and a threat of their spread into the environment and to the community. However, to decipher their role in the infectious disease burden in Africa, more research is needed.

Tämän tutkimuksen tarkoituksena on kuvata, analysoida ja tulkita, millä tavalla tekstilaji nimeltä lehtiartikkeli esiintyy kahdessa lukion englannin kielen oppikirjasarjassa. Tutkimuksessa verrataan oppikirjan tekstejä niiden lähteinä käytettyihin alkuperäisiin artikkeleihin. Tavoitteena on pohtia, millä tavoin tekstejä on muutettu, jotta ne toimisivat myös pedagogisessa kontekstissa. Tutkimuksen toinen tavoite on vertailla kahta eri oppikirjasarjaa (Culture Café ja ProFiles) ja niiden ensimmäisissä ja viimeisissä kursseissa käytettyjä oppikirjoja sekä eritellä miten tekstejä on muokattu niiden välillä. Lähtöoletuksena ja hypoteesina tutkimuksessa on, että mitä ylemmälle opetuksen asteelle kirjasarjoissa siirrytään, sitä vähemmän tekstejä on oppikirjoihin sarjasta riippumatta muokattu. Sen lisäksi voidaan olettaa, että jokaista tekstiä on muokattu oppikirjaan jonkin verran, oli kyse sitten artikkelin visuaalisen ilmeen muuttamisesta tai tekstin ominaisuuksista. Tutkimus on luonteeltaan sisällönanalyysi, joka kahteen tutkimuskysymykseen pohjautuen pyrkii tutkimaan, millä tavoin lehtiartikkeleita on muokattu oppikirjaa varten. Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan yhteensä kahdeksaa oppikirjatekstiä kummastakin oppikirjasta ja niiden lähteinä käytettyjä lehtiartikkeleita. Lisäksi vertaillaan kahden kirjasarjan ensimmäisen ja viimeisen kurssin tekstien muokkaamistapaa ja -astetta. Tutkimus pyrkii myös erittelemään tapoja, jolla autenttisia tekstejä on muokattu oppikirjan pedagogista kontekstia varten. Tutkimuksen teoreettinen viitekehys koostuu pääosin genretutkimusta, opetusmateriaaleja ja lehtiartikkeleita tekstilajina käsittelevästä lähdekirjallisuudesta. Lehtiartikkelin tekstilajille määritetyt yleiset piirteet nojaavat pääosin Brendan Hennessyn malliin lehtiartikkelin rakenteesta ja käsitteestä. Tutkimuksen tulosten pohdinta nojautuu teoreettiseen viitekehykseen, tutkijan omiin päätelmiin ja ProFiles -kirjasarjan kirjoittajan haastatteluun oppikirjan tekemisestä. Tulokset osoittavat, että vaikka oppikirjan kappaleet muistuttavatkin perusrakenteeltaan lehtiartikkeleiden alkuperäisversioita, autenttisia tekstejä on muokattu oppikirjoja varten tekstien kappalejakoa, virke -ja lauserakenteita, sanavalintoja, tekstien otsikoita ja jopa välimerkkejä muuttelemalla. Kahden oppikirjasarjan vertailussa todettiin, että vain ProFiles -sarjassa tekstien muokkaus väheni ylemmälle opetusasteelle siirryttäessä.

Tässä tutkielmassa tarkastellaan näennäisesti sukupuolineutraalien termien käyttöä viitattaessa oikeudenkäynnin vastaajaan 1700- ja 1800-luvuilla Englannissa. Tutkimuksen tavoitteena on selvittää, miten todistajien sukupuolineutraalien termien käyttö ilmaisee piileviä asenteita mies- ja naispuolisia vastaajia kohtaan. Tutkittava aineisto on kerätty Old Bailey Corpus 2.0 -korpuksesta, ja sitä on täydennetty Proceeding of the Old Bailey -oikeudenkäyntiasiakirjoilla. Teoreettisena viitekehyksinä toimivat saavutettavuusteoria (eng. Accessibility theory, Ariel 1990) ja subjektiivisuus (Traugott 2010; Langacker 2008). Tutkimus koostuu kahdesta osasta. Kvantitatiivisessa osassa tarkastellaan 20 vastaajaan viittaavan sukupuolineutraalin termin esiintymiä niiden määräisyyden kannalta. Kvalitatiivisessa osassa puolestaan syvennytään kahden sukupuolineutraalin termin (creature ja person) käyttöön referentti- ja sukupuoliryhmittäin. Jälkimmäinen aineisto on koottu yhteensä 219 todistajalausunnosta, joissa edellä mainitut termit esiintyvät. Tuloksista käy ilmi, että rikollisuuteen tai epäilyttävään luonteeseen viittaavat termit (esimerkiksi criminal, stranger) ovat subjektiivisia. Toisaalta sellaiset termit kuten prisoner ja defendant ovat tässä yhteydessä objektiivisia, sillä ne viittaavat vastaajan rooliin oikeudenkäynnissä. Creature ja person puolestaan ovat monitulkintaisempia termejä. Niiden käyttö on osittain sukupuolittunutta, joskaan sukupuoli ei ole ainoa selittävä tekijä. Termin creature kohdalla referentit ovat useimmiten naisia, mutta käyttö vaihtelee oikeudenkäyntiroolin (esim. vastaaja, todistaja) ja rikosnimikkeen mukaan. Myös puhujan suhde referenttiin vaikuttaa ilmaisun valintaan. Termin person referentit ovat puolestaan useimmiten miehiä. Rikosnimikkeellä ei näytä olevan vaikutusta, sillä kyseistä termiä käytetään useimmiten kuvailuissa, joissa ilmaistaan varmuutta tai epävarmuutta viitatun henkilön identiteetistä.

Vallitsevan tieteeseen perustuvan uskomuksen mukaan ne englannin oppijat, joiden omissa äidinkielissään esiintyy vähän tai ei ollenkaan fraasiverbejä, välttävät fraasiverbien käyttöä englantia puhuessaan ja kirjoittaessaan englanti vieraana kielenä -kontekstissa. Tutkielmassani esitän holistisesti monimenetelmätutkimuksen keinoin vaihtoehtoisen näkemyksen, jonka mukaan verrattain vähäisempi fraasiverbien käyttö puheessa selittyy pikemminkin tietämättömyydestä ja vähäisestä altistuksesta, kuin tämän kielioppikategorian vastustamisesta. Tässä maisterintutkielmassa selvitän korpustutkimuksen keinoin pääasiallisesti suomalaisten lukiolaisten englannin oppijoiden fraasiverbien käyttöä suullisessa kokeessa, mutta tarkastelen myös suomalaisten 7.-luokkalaisten tuottamaa kieltä vertailun vuoksi. Käyttämäni suomalaiset korpukset ovat Hy-Talk ja FUSE. Vertaan suomalaisten englannin oppijoiden fraasiverbien käyttöä englantia äidinkielenään puhuvien isobritannialaisten nuorten fraasiverbien käyttöön. Vertailukorpuksena käytän BNC2014korpusta, josta rajasin aineistoa, jotta se olisi paremmin yhteensopiva suomalaisten korpusten kanssa niin koon kuin populaation osalta. Vertailemalla selvitän suomea ja englantia äidinkielenään puhuvien nuorten suullista fraasiverbien käyttöä rakenteellisesti, määrällisesti ja laadullisesti. Tavoitteenani on saada mahdollisimman kokonaisvaltainen kuva fraasiverbien käytöstä. Kun suomalaisesta korpusaineistosta saatua tietoa verrataan BNC2014-korpukseen, käy ilmi, että suomalaiset lukiolaiset englannin kielen oppijat käyttävät puheessaan keskimäärin huomattavasti vähemmän fraasiverbejä kuin englantia äidinkielenään puhuvat nuoret. Tämä ei kuitenkaan vielä tarkoita sitä, että suomalaisten englannin oppijoiden vähäisempi fraasiverbien käyttö selittyisi sillä, että fraasiverbejä vältettäisiin. Syitä verrattain vähäiseen fraasiverbien käyttöön voidaan löytää fraasiverbien opetuksesta ja vähäisestä altistuksesta. Tutkimalla Hy-Talkin sisältämää 7.-luokkalaisten englannin oppijoiden suullista tuottoa saadaan selville, että fraasiverbien käyttö kasvaa jyrkästi yläkoulun alusta lukioon. Fraasiverbien käyttö suullisessa koetilanteessa korreloi paremman kokonaisarvosanan kanssa. Vaikka suomalaisten englannin oppijoiden fraasiverbien käyttö on määrällisesti vähäisempää verrattuna natiiveihin, käyttämäni aineisto perustellusti vahvistaa näkemystä siitä, että oppimista tapahtuu ja suomalaiset englannin oppijat käyttävät fraasiverbejä parhaiden kykyjensä mukaan.

Marine debris is a problem that also affects sea birds. Several bird species are known to utilise marine debris among their nest materials in different parts of the world. Debris in nests can cause entanglement and increase the risk of debris ingestion, and hazardous substances leaching from plastics can have negative effects on birds. There are also anecdotal observations of debris in the great cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis) nests in the Gulf of Finland, however, systematic studies are lacking. In this Master’s thesis I examined the prevalence of debris in cormorant nests in the Gulf of Finland, focusing mainly on plastic debris. The study was carried out in four nesting islets, which were located in Kotka, Porvoo, Espoo and Kirkkonummi. The sampling took place in autumn 2021. 50 nests were randomly sampled on each nesting islet, and plastic debris in the nest was counted and classified according to their type, colour and origin. Plastic debris was further categorized in the laboratory according to their polymer type using Fourier Transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Debris from the nesting islets was also counted and classified according to their type, colour and origin. In total, 58% of the nests contained debris, but the prevalence of debris in the nests varied between the colonies; In Kirkkonummi debris was found in 92% of the nests while in Porvoo only 34% of the nests included debris. Plastics constituted great majority of nest debris (95%). Most common source for plastic debris was consumers, most common plastic type threadlike and polymer type polyethylene (PE). The number of debris in the nests was linked to the width and location of the nests: core nests contained more debris than periphery nests and the number of debris in the nest was positively correlated with the width of the nest. The amount of threadlike plastics in the nests was higher than that in the surrounding environment, indicating active selection by cormorants for threadlike debris types as nest material. Based on the results of this thesis, nest surveys could be a useful tool in evaluating the effectiveness of certain reduction measures aiming to tackle marine plastic pollution.

The thesis examines the use of a cloud initialization method in which Meteosat satellite observation-derived cloud products are used to adjust the initial post-data assimilation model cloud fields in numerical weather prediction (NWP) models. The method was developed by van der Veen (2013) and uses cloud masks from Meteosat geostationary weather satellites together with surface-based cloud base height observations to improve the initial clouds, and through them the cloud forecast. Initially developed with HIRLAM, a short-range NWP model, it has later been used with nowcasting-range NWP models based on the HIRLAM and HARMONIE-AROME NWP models. Distinguishing features of nowcasting NWP models and the use of satellite data in NWP models are discussed. The cloud initialization method and later changes to it are described, and the effect of the method on the quality of cloud forecasts is examined. New verification scores for the current pre-operational MetCoOp-Nowcasting (MNWC) model, which includes the latest version of the cloud initialization method, are examined for the months of June and September 2020. The primary weather parameter verified was cloud cover, but other key parameters are also discussed. The results of the pre-operational MNWC were promising, due to monthly-average cloud cover biases being reduced. MNWC scored higher than the reference model in forecasting cloud-free and mostly cloud-free situations in particular, but some improvements were also seen for situations with denser cloud cover. Results for other model fields were mixed. Further verification of the MNWC model is needed. In the future, there is high potential for the further development of the method, with ongoing development of HARMONIE-AROME, the cloud initialization method, the cloud products’ algorithms, and as the next generation of Meteosat satellites enters operational use in the next few years.