Browsing by discipline "The Religious Roots of Europe"

The purpose of this thesis is to compare the characters of David and Judith and particularly the notions of the ideal masculinities. The purpose is also to ask if the findings also reflect the general understanding of the Old Testament masculinities. The primary sources are the book of Judith, in particular the chapters 8-16 where Judith herself is acting and the 1. Samuel 16-18 where David is introduced for the first time. The main research questions are:1) What kind of similarities and differences can be found from these texts how they present gender and a relation to the ideal masculinities? 2) More importantly, how do these characters have been chosen to the role of hero(ine) when they do not resonate primarily with the ideal masculinity? The main reason why these two characters are chosen is their similar narrative elements and more importantly, the both characters represent the subordinate masculinities. The characters have to find alternative strategies in order to act unconventionally and to challenge the hegemonic power. Focusing on masculine and feminine qualities of the chosen characters, the presumption is that the construction of gender is embedded in the symbolical level of different cultures and can be analysed. The focus is on both female and male character, in particularly characters that do not fulfil the ideal hegemonic characteristics. The assumption is that this starting point will give a different view than if the focus was only on female characters or solely male characters. The main masculine ideals that are brought out from the source texts are beauty, persuasiveness and wisdom, prowess and courage in the battlefield and the divine masculinity. The conclusion shows that masculinity in the Old Testament is more complex than the masculinity theory normally suggests. The distinction between the hegemony and the subordinate masculinities varies a lot and the representatives in lower positions find their way to act against the unconventional roles. It is possible because the ultimate power is the divine power. God is unchanging representation of the hegemony who has power over human beings.

This study looks at the way in which the good works inspired by religious motives are related to the secular understanding of development. The aim is to better understand how development workers with religious worldview define the concept of development and how their faith influences their thinking. Faith is understood as the source of values based on which the ideas of development are shaped. The task is approached by interviewing the Finnish staff members of a Pentecostal development organization, Fida International. Their staff members’ understanding of development is studied. Development as a religious concept is formulated based on the interviews. The background chapters give the context of the study by introducing the debate and connections between the concepts of religion and development. Also an introduction of the capability approach developed by Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum is provided since in this study it represents the secular understanding of development. The key concepts of the approach: functionings, agency and development are used to analyze how religious values influence the understanding of development. Chapter four introduces the research material, the methods and the process of analysis. The data consist of 16 interviews carried out in East Africa by the author in the spring of 2016. In chapter five the results of the analysis are presented. The valued functionings that emerge from faith were: fulfilling God’s call, living out one’s faith, deliverance and trusting God, spiritual growth, freedom from guilt through God’s forgiveness and mercy, and achieving balance and harmony. The results are brought together to formulate a definition of development as religious concept. Chapter six reflects on the results in relation to the literature focusing on the religious perception of development. The elements that faith brings to the secular understanding of development are intertwined around the holistic approach in which the economic, political, social and spiritual dimensions of development cannot be viewed separately. Therefore, the relationship between God and the human becomes central. The human finds his ultimate purpose and thus the aim of development within God in his Kingdom. Therefore, faith widens the time perspective of development from this life into eternity. According to the interviewees of the study God has called the human to love him by loving his neighbors. Solidarity, equality and just world become the aim of development within the time frame of this life. To reach there, to have Shalom in this life already, was seen as too idealistic. Therefore, the aim of the man-made development process within this time frame emerges with the ultimate aim of development, the life in God’s Kingdom in the eternity.

Both ancient writers and modern scholars have noted the frequency with which ascetics in the late Roman Empire were accused of Manichaeism. Such accusations are often discussed in relation to specific incidents, but have not typically been examined as a phenomenon in their own right. In this thesis, I compare the roles of Manichaean accusations in the Priscillianist and Jovinianist controversies. Priscillian was convicted of sorcery, and yet the accusation of Manichaeism haunted him so thoroughly that after his death, the emperor Magnus Maximus freely referred to him and his companions as Manichaeans. Prior to his death, Priscillian condemned Manichaeism for its illegality and idolatry, suggesting that Manichaeans were sun-worshippers in documents intended to demonstrate his own orthodoxy to skeptics. In the Jovinianist controversy, a veritable web of accusations plagued participants on both sides. The controversy’s particular focus on marriage, sex, and celibacy created an environment in which Manichaeism was frequently invoked, first to condemn anyone who rejected marriage as the Manichaeans were said to do, and later to condemn even Jovinian, who specifically campaigned against the elevation of celibacy. A comparison of the two controversies reveals a few basic patterns. First, the “Manichaean” label was versatile because Manichaeism itself carried a wealth of negative connotations, from magic to rejection of marriage to idolatry; it could easily be applied to opponents for a broad variety of reasons. Second, there are commonalities between the accusations in the two controversies: association with illegality, heresy, and asceticism are the common threads that unite the accusations. Third, in a time when the boundaries of orthodoxy were still being debated, Manichaeism served as a useful signpost for what was not orthodox. There were many polemical labels that could be applied to one’s opponents in this period; I argue that the accusation of Manichaeism stood out for its versatility, power, and the immediate relevance it gained from the visible presence of Manichaeans in the Empire.

The purpose of this thesis is to problematize the complexity and the variety of voices that dialogued by the end of the third century a.D. in Rome in order to contribute to shape the phenomenon we have come to know as Christianity. The research question is:as opposed to using just a source associated with the Church, what additional perspectives are provided by the juxtaposition of more voices in order to conceptualise alterity within Christianity in this foundational moment? In order to answer it, I use three sources (Eusebius’ Historia Ecclesiastica, Lactantius’ De Mortibus Persecutorum and the Memoria Apostolorum graffiti in Via Appia, Rome), which provide a variety of voices associated with a range social actors. The objective is to give a broader account of Christian alterity in late antiquity by means of applying a dialogic approach. Originally proposed by Mikhail Bakhtin, this hermeneutic paradigm seeks to juxtapose the voices of all the social actors implied in order to show the conflict between. Given that it would not be possible to juxtapose all the possible sources, I base my analysis in a historical framework grounded on secondary literature that also acts as a metadiscursive context to interpret the sources. I make use of mixed methods based on content analysis, using MaxQDA to code segments in all three sources and then analyse their frequencies in order to delineate which variables are more relevant to analyse. I thereafter present comments; first analysing only Eusebius’ text, then analysing all three together and showing the conflict between them. Finally, I contrast both conceptualisations. My main conclusion is that an open ended account of history represents alterity in a more complex way that allows researchers to make folk discourses visible, as was the case for these three sources, despite having the risk of being more chaotic.

This thesis will aim to answer at least the following questions: How is the Sūrat al-Qāriʿa (Q 101) rendered in the Nordic translations of the Qurʾān? What are the similarities and differences between different translation? In what ways do the different translations relate to the source text? What aspects of the source text are prioritized by the translators? These questions are approached from the perspective of Translation Theory. The problem of equivalence is discussed in relation to the work of Eugene Nida in his Towards a Science of Translation (1964). I will argue that translating cannot be separated from hermeneutics, since "every translation is at the same time an interpretation" as Hans-Georg Gadamer has stated. The problem of hermeneutics and Translation Theory is discussed from the hermeneutical perspective of Hans-Georg Gadamer especially as developed in his monograph Truth and Method (1960). The Skopos Theory formulated by Katharina Reiß and Hans J. Vermeer will be discussed as a possible answer to these underlying problems. The method of research applied in this thesis will consist of various hermeneutical cycles of reading, interpretation, and re-reading. After analyzing the Sūrat al-Qāriʿa in Arabic, I will provide a comparative analysis of the translations juxtaposing the texts with each other and with the Arabic text. This section will discuss similarities and differences, the proximity between the original and the translation, some possible biblical intertextualities, and possible interpretative associations of the translations in their Nordic context. This thesis will point out many subtle similarities, differences and translational tendencies related to the translator's background that can illuminate, enrich and broaden our understanding of the Sūrat al-Qāriʿa and its reception in the Nordic countries, while also opening new perspectives on the complexities involved in translating ancient texts that are revered as sacred by many.

The study attempts a reception-historical analysis of the Maccabean martyrs. The concept of reception has fundamentally to do with the re-use and interpretation of a text within new texts. In a religious tradition, certain elements become re-circulated and thus their reception may reflect the development of that particular tradition. The Maccabean martyrs first appear in 2 Maccabees. In my study, it is the Maccabean martyr figures who count as the received text; the focus is shifted from the interrelations between texts onto how the figures have been exploited in early Christian and Rabbinic sources. I have divided my sources into two categories and my analysis is in two parts. First, I analyze the reception of the Maccabean martyrs within Jewish and Christian historiographical sources, focusing on the role given to them in the depictions of the Maccabean Revolt (Chapter 3). I conclude that, within Jewish historiography, the martyrs are given roles, which vary between ultimate efficacy and marginal position with regard to making a historical difference. In Christian historiographical sources, the martyrs role grows in importance by time: however, it is not before a Christian cult of the Maccabean martyrs has been established, that the Christian historiographies consider them historically effective. After the first part, I move on to analyze the reception in sources, which make use of the Maccabean martyrs as paradigmatic figures (Chapter 4). I have suggested that the martyrs are paradigmatic in the context of martyrdom, persecution and destruction, on one hand, and in a homiletic context, inspiring religious celebration, on the other. I conclude that, as the figures are considered pre-Christian and biblical martyrs, they function well in terms of Christian martyrdom and have contributed to the development of its ideals. Furthermore, the presentation of the martyr figures in Rabbinic sources demonstrates how the notion of Jewish martyrdom arises from experiences of destruction and despair, not so much from heroic confession of faith in the face of persecution. Before the emergence of a Christian cult of the Maccabean martyrs, their identity is derived namely from their biblical position. Later on, in the homiletic context, their Jewish identity is debated and sometimes reconstructed as fundamentally Christian , despite of their Jewish origins. Similar debate about their identity is not found in the Rabbinic versions of their martyrdom and nothing there indicates a mutual debate between early Christians and Jews. A thematic comparison shows that the Rabbinic and Christian cases of reception are non-reliant on each other but also that they link to one another. Especially the scriptural connections, often made to the Maccabean mother, reveal the similarities. The results of the analyses confirm that the early history of Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism share, at least partly, the same religious environment and intertwining traditions, not only during the first century or two but until Late Antiquity and beyond. More likely, the reception of the Maccabean martyrs demonstrates that these religious traditions never ceased to influence one another.

This thesis is born out of an observation in some recent scholarly research that tends to polarize early church fathers, particularly Jerome and Augustine in their attitude towards the expression of grief by bereaved Christians. Augustine is said to allow a moderation of grief while Jerome condemns it outright. Adopting a literary analytical method, this thesis sets out to find the disposition of saints Jerome and Augustine towards the expression of grief in their consolation letters. The study finds out that there are more similarities in Jerome’s and Augustine’s approaches to grief than differences. Neither of these men maintained a singular stand on the expression of grief but adjusted their position depending on various circumstances. Their ideal recommendation was that Christians ought not to weep at all for deceased Christians but instead to rejoice and congratulate them for having left a world of sin to be with Christ. But when circumstances made the emotion of grief too powerful to bear, the church fathers excused grief and instead called for moderation. Having been bereaved themselves, at one point or the other, the church fathers were not unaware of the power of this emotion. When grief was excused, they explained that the grief was not for the departed person but for the virtues lost due to the death and for the living because they are allowed to continue in the world of turmoil and away from paradise. Grief also became legitimate if the deceased person died in sin because then, he would descend to hell. In their consolation letters the church fathers adapted traditional lines of arguments that were current in the Greco-Roman consolations to correspond with the teachings of the Bible in order to offer consolation to bereaved Christians. This hybrid produced a kind of consolation that some scholars have referred to as ‘theological consolation’. Unlike the philosophical consolation of the pagans, Christian consolation was hinged on the assurance of resurrection at the second coming of Christ. But as the second coming of Christ became less and less imminent than it was first thought the church fathers began to offer consolation based on an assurance that the deceased believer is already in heaven. The thesis begins with a survey of the ancient practice of consolation, a practice that was first documented and transmitted by the Greeks but adopted and preserved by Romans and then Greek and Latin church fathers. There was also an attempt to define consolation as a literary genre, an effort that many scholars find problematic due to the vastness of literature with consolatory content and the variety in degree of consolation in each. The solution to this problem was to view consolation as a theme present in various genres rather than a genre of its own. On this basis, my sources were delimited to include only patristic epistolary consolation.

Religion is increasingly a part of public discussion. This study investigated the theme in the context of the Finnish armed forces, by researching the attitudes towards religion of a young group of officers. The objective was to uncover if they opined that they would professionally benefit from added knowledge on the on religions and cultures. The study was conducted by first analyzing a variety of religious texts from the Bible and the Qur’an, using the method of reception. After this, analysis of a course designed to improve the officers’ action competence was conducted, by researching its content as it applied to religious material. Finally, a reception exercise was conducted with the students, who also answered additional questions on their values and their opinions on necessary education on the matter. Material from a US document was also analyzed in increase context. The results were that almost all of students did find religious and cultural education useful in their profession. Religion was not personally important to them, and while most exhibited an unattached attitude towards the texts, some were in part even hostile towards them. In their opinion religion should have no part in any decision making which involved the running of a state, but Christianity had value as part of the Finnish cultural heritage and value system. The core values explicated by the students were love of home and family, love of country, wanting to belong to a community, uprightness, honesty, justice and appreciation of professionalism. Ethical considerations were discussed greatly and contradictory expectations of them weight on many of them, i.e. the expectations for officers to be both gentlemen (and women) and killers. They were also worried of having to take a life, showing no trigger-happy attitude, as far as the author observed. As a further study it is suggested that similar experiences from soldiers on international missions and from other governmental agencies are collected, in order to create a system of education in this area.