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Tässä työssä on tutkittu kaupan oman merkin ulkoisten vihjeiden roolia kuluttajan laatumielikuvien muodostumiselle sekä käytettyjen laatuvihjeiden ennustettavuus- ja luotettavuusarvoja. Tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli selvittää ja syventää tietoa kuluttajien käyttämien ulkoisten tuoteattribuuttien merkityksestä private label -elintarvikkeiden laatumielikuvan muodostumisprosessissa. Tämä tutkimus on rajattu koskemaan ainoastaan elintarvikesegmentin omia merkkejä, vaikka Suomessa kauppa tarjoaa laajasti erilaisia omien merkkien kulutushyödykkeitä. Asetetun tutkimusongelman avulla on tässä työssä yritetty vastata tutkimusaukkoon, jossa tavoitteena on täydentää private labeleiden laatuun liittyvää kvalitatiivista tutkimusta. Tutkimuksen empiirisessä osiossa tehtiin kaksitoista teemahaastattelua, jossa vastaajajoukko koostui eri ikäisistä, pääkaupunkiseudulla asuvista kuluttajista. Tutkimuksen haastatteluaineistoa analysoitiin teemoittelun avulla, jossa hyödynnettiin teorian pohjalta rakennettuja teema-alueita sekä haastatteluaineistosta esiin nousseita teemoja. Analyysiprosessissa ovat vaihdelleet valmiit mallit ja aineistolähtöisyys, joka on tyypillistä teoriasidonnaiselle analyysille. Tulokset osoittavat, että teoreettista viitekehystä jäsentävän vihjeidenkäyttöteorian osa-alueet ovat merkittävässä roolissa kaupan omien merkkien laadunarviointiprosessissa. Kuten myös aikaisempi kvantitatiivinen tutkimus on osoittanut, sisäiset laatuvihjeet ovat tuotteen arvioinnissa ensisijaisessa roolissa. Ulkoisia vihjeitä hyödynnetään sisäisten vihjeiden sijaisattribuutteina tilanteissa, joissa sisäisten vihjeiden hyödyntäminen ei ole mahdollista esimerkiksi puutteellisen tuotetuntemuksen tai tuntemattoman tuotekategorian vuoksi. Työn empiirisessä osiossa tehdyn tutkimuksen mukaan hinta, brändi ja tuotepakkaus ovat kuluttajien laadunarviointiprosessissa merkittävämmässä roolissa kuin markkinointi ja kaupan imago. Näiden vihjeiden merkitys kuitenkin vaihteli haastattelututkimuksen ja kuvatehtävän välillä. Tutkimustulosten mukaan elintarvikkeiden sisäiset vihjeet ennustavat parhaiten tuotteen todellista laatua. Tällöin sisäisillä vihjeillä on korkeampi ennustettavuusarvo. Ulkoisilla vihjeillä on lähinnä tukeva rooli laadunarviointiprosessissa ja ne toimivat laadunarvioinnissa sijaisattribuutteina, jos kuluttajilla ei ole mahdollisuutta hyödyntää tuotteen sisäisiä laatuvihjeitä. Tutkimuksen empiirisen osion avulla löydettiin näkökulmia, joita varhaisempi aihetta käsittelevä kirjallisuus ei ole tarkastellut, vaikka aihepiirejä on tutkittu muissa yhteyksissä. Vihjeiden merkitys vaihtelee kuluttajittain ja tuotekategorioittain. Uusia tuotteita tai tuotekategorioita arvioitaessa, ulkoisilla vihjeillä on suurempi rooli laadunarviointiprosessissa kuin tavanomaisissa hankintapäätöksissä.

Idli is a popular cereal-legume fermented food of Indian origin. It is steam cooked from fermented (lactic acid-yeast) batter of rice (cereal) and black gram (legume). Idli preparation process includes three major steps – soaking of rice and black gram, grounding and fermentation. The idli preparation process is laborious, as the whole procedure takes about 20 hours. Further, the fermented batter has a shelf life of 4-5 days at 4 ºC. Literature studies reveal less efforts has been taken to improve shelf life and nutritional quality of idli. The overall aim of this thesis was to improve the quality of idli batter by mild heat treatment (Objective 1) and through microbial applications (Objective 2-4). First, the fermented idli batter was mild heat (MH) treated (57, 60, 63, 66 and 70 ºC ) to reduce the high (10.5 log cfu/g) lactic acid bacteria and yeast counts for enhancing the shelf stability at refrigerated storage. MH treatment (at 70 ºC) induced the highest reduction (3.6 log cfu/g) without affecting the pasting profile of idli batter. During storage study (upto 10 days at 4 ºC) the microbial counts further decreased without change in pH.The second objective was to monitor the changes in physicochemical properties and B-vitamin (riboflavin, folate and vitamin B12) levels in idli batter fermentation on addition of starters - Lactococcus lactis N8 (SAA1) and Saccharomyces boulardii (YEA1). Fermentation profiles were recorded individually and in combination of starters. SAA1 and YEA1 were able to enhance or retain riboflavin and folate levels, but no change in vitamin B12 levels were observed during fermentation. Further, YEA1 individually and in combination with SAA1 significantly improved the idli batter volume, implying high gas production. The third objective was to produce nisin in idli batter by addition of SAA1 (nisin producer). The results highlighted SAA1 was capable of producing nisin in idli. However, the produced nisin was degraded by the activity of indigenous LAB and yeast in idli batter. The final objective of this thesis was to determine the viability of probiotic Bacillus coagulans (BAC1) spores after cooking (steaming and microwaving) and during storage (at 4 ºC) of idli batter. Microwave cooking resulted in higher reduction of BAC1 than steam cooking. However, 5.4 log cfu/g of BAC1 spores were still viable in steamed idli from the initial added amount (8.2 log cfu/g). The BAC1 spores were not stable in idli batter suggesting spore outgrowth during storage. In summary, these results present different strategies and information for future process and product developments in idli.

Toffee is a hard-textured confectionery product which is made by boiling together sugar, milk, and fat to a certain temperature. The aim of this study was to determine the suitability and effect of seven kinds of dairy powders in toffee processing. The recipes based on dry dairy powder content of 8.8% (1st series), and protein content of 3.5% with constant solid content compensated by sucrose (2nd series). Dairy powders used in this research were: skim milk powder (SMP); butter milk powder (BMP); whole milk powder (WMP); lactose-free skim milk powder (LF-SMP); lactose-free whole milk powder (LF-WMP); 40% demineralized whey powder (D40); and 70% demineralized whey powder (D70). Color, mechanical properties, water content, water activity (aw), and glass transition temperature (Tg) of final toffee samples were analyzed. Mechanical properties were examined after one week storage as well. The data obtained were analyzed by MATLAB and SPSS. In both series, toffees made of LF-SMP showed darkest color, and those containing WMP had lightest color. Higher water content and aw in the 2nd series resulted in softer and more sticky toffees than in the 1st series. Increasing content of protein and lactose increased the hardness of toffee in the 1st series. In the 2nd series, sucrose crystals produced gritty texture of toffee, leading to decreasing hardness and stiffness of toffee, but increasing stickiness. After one week storage, all the toffees became harder and more sticky. Toffees made from lactose free dairy powders always showed higher tendency to flow and deformation than the others, indicating the function of lactose in stability of toffee. In conclusion, increasing content of protein and lactose increased the hardness of toffee. Increasing content of protein and reducing sugar led to darker color of toffee. Higher water content and aw decreased hardness, stiffness, and stability of toffee, but increased stickiness. Increasing the content of sucrose decreased the hardness, stiffness, and stability of toffee as well. SMP showed highest suitability among seven kinds of dairy powders in toffee manufacture. BMP and WMP were also possible to be dairy source in the recipe of toffee. Lactose-free milk powder was not a good choice to form stable toffee.

The objective of the study is to identify and analyse factors affecting the time from project submission to validation and project registration (lead time) of projects in the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) pipeline. The hypothesis was that since projects have been implemented in China for the longest time and most projects have been in China, the process times would be shortest there. The first two phases of the CDM cycle, i.e. validation and registration, are considered. These are the most crucial stages for a CDM project, since a project will not start generating Certified Emissions Reductions (CERs) before it has been registered. The data used for the study is based on the CDM database collected by UNEP Risoe, which is gathered from the information found at the UNFCCC website. The cut-off date for projects considered in the thesis is the end of April 2010. Four factors influencing the lead times, that can be separated from the data, are considered in the thesis: 1) the validator of the project, 2) the queue in the pipeline at the time the project is submitted, 3) the type of a project and 4) in which region the project is implemented. Two methods were used in the thesis: an empirical study was conducted to assess the effects of the validator, project types, and regions on the lead times; and the effect of the queues in the process phases where analysed with regression analysis. The results show that the processing times in fact are much longer in general than they should be according to the rules and procedures of the CDM, which assign approximately 30 days for each phase. The study shows that queues have indeed had an effect on the lead times of the CDM. The results confirm the hypothesis: the longer the queue, the longer the lead time. The countries where most CDM projects have been developed, mainly China, India and Brazil, do surprisingly not have the shortest lead times. The lead times in China are the longest of all regions, even if only the projects entering the pipeline after 2007 are considered. It seems that other factors weigh more heavily in China’s favor for project implementation. It might be that since CDM projects have been implemented there for the longest time, the project developers are familiar with the process in China and prefer it for that reason.

Agricultural systems hold great potential in contributing greenhouse gas mitigation measures globally. Crop diversification, perennial vegetative cover and soil conservational measures are highlighted in order to develop agricultural production in a sustainable way. Increasing climate related public concern has created a demand for sustainable materials for manufacturing industries. Nettle (Urtica dioica) has been proven to hold economic and ecological advantages and great commercial potential. Nettle is a perennial low input crop with multiple end uses within harvest offering an attractive crop for farmers. The crop has been historically used in industrial scale however, current nettle production in agricultural scale is marginal despite its positive characteristics. Research on nettle’s commercial potential has been conducted in various industries. Lack of farmers has left results idle and commercial potential unachieved. This study uses basic management accounting practices in order to find the break-even points and profitability of the production in Finnish conventional farming framework. The production information is gathered from various international projects and is used in order to assess the profitability of nettle production and expand the assessment to evaluate production’s environmental benefits. For a comparison, similar assessment is performed for a conventional crop rotation consisting an oilseed crop, wheat and grass. In the chosen 4-year setting, the nettle production proves more expensive majorly due to first year’s economically non-viable production. Nettle’s low input use during the yield years and predictable long term yield output is likely to reduce unit costs over time. Nettle’s production cost of dry biomass is 0,29 euros per kilogram and break-even price after subsidies is 0,16 euros for a kilogram, similar to wheat. Nettle’s low input use and relatively large, annual 8000kg fresh yields indicate the production could turn profitable with comparably low prices. Environmentally, after the first year nettle creates an annual 1,3 ton carbon sink despite conventional fertilizer use and machinery work done of field.

Tiivistelmä – Referat – Abstract Majority of research on emission reductions in the maritime logistics chain has focused on ships and their energy efficiency. Also other parts of the chain, such as container terminals, retain untapped emission reduction potential. Gaseous and particulate exhaust emissions and greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) rank among the top environmental concerns in ports. Main sources for these emissions are energy consumed by ships and trucks entering the port and cargo handling machines operating at the port site. This thesis focuses on emissions generated during the use phase of mobile cargo handling machines. Its main objective is to evaluate the private and social profitability of diesel-electric (ICEV), hybrid (HEV) and battery-electric (BEV) machine when GHG and regional emissions matter for the society. The profitability of each technology is measured with the net present value (NPV) method, assuming 40,000 machine lifetime hours. The harmful effects of emissions on society are monetized by estimating their social cost. Emissions included in the analysis are NOx, PM and the main GHGs from fuel combustion (CH4, CO2 and NH3). In the base case, BEV was the most profitable technology, both from the private and social perspective. The private net present costs of BEV were 6% lower compared to the HEV and 9% lower compared to the ICEV. Respectively, the social net present costs of BEV were 9% lower compared to the HEV and 12% lower compared to the ICEV. Even when the cost parameters were varied one at a time, the savings in operational costs for the BEV compared to other alternatives were significant. BEV had the lowest costs in each scenario except for when the diesel price was low. Only in the low diesel price scenario another alternative (HEV) had the lowest costs. The air quality benefits of both hybrid (HEV) and battery-electric (BEV) container handling machines are clear in comparison to the conventional diesel machine (ICEV). However, the magnitude of benefits depends on the level of damage cost applied in the analysis. The operational CO2 emissions of the BEV depend on the origin of the charging electricity. When applying the CO2 emission factor for average European electricity grid, CO2 emissions from the BEV were approximately 67% lower compared to the ICEV. With Finland’s average grid emission factor, BEV emissions were 89% lower compared to ICEV and 84% lower compared to HEV. In general, there is uncertainty about costs used in the study as they have been gathered from multiple, in part unscientific sources. The research topic is also constrained by scarcity of reliable and public information from ports and terminals. However, the future seems more promising with the increasing digitalization in the industry as well as the growing demand for corporate transparency and reporting on non-financial topics.

Propionibacterium freudenreichii is a known as secondary ripening culture that occurs spontaneously in small amounts in raw milk. Contamination of raw milk with P. freudenreichii and other microbes can occur during milking, transporting and processing, either from the air or through surfaces. Microbes that spontaneously end up in raw milk survive on heat treatments that are milder than pasteurization, which makes the microbiome of raw milk cheeses more diverse than cheeses made from pasteurized milk, where a higher heating temperature inactivates enzymes and kills microbes. During the ripening of the cheese, a lot of changes occur in the microbiome. The aim of this master thesis was to discover the presence and number of lactic acid bacteria and propionic bacteria in raw milk cheeses by culturing samples in different culture media, and to identify P. freudenreichii by using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method and P. freudenreichii -specific primers. In addition, selected P. freudenreichii strains were tested for their ability to produce vitamin B12 by liquid chromatography and the effects of different NaCl concentrations on the growth of P. freudenreichii isolates were investigated. There were differences in the number bacterial colony forming units of the cheeses. Of the selected catalase-positive isolates resembling P. freudenreichii isolates morphologically, 65% were identified as P. freudenreichii strains by PCR. Most strains of P. freudenreichii were identified from isolates of Vorarlberger Bergkäs and Liechtensteiner cheese samples (92–94%). The least strains of P. freudenreichii were identified from isolates of Tete de Moine cheese samples (25%). Possibly Vorarlberger Bergkäs and Liechtensteiner cheeses had more P. freudenreichii bacteria compared to other propionic bacteria with similary colony morphology, and Tete de Moine had less of P. freudenreichii bacteria than other propionic bacteria. Based on growth experiments, increasing the NaCl content on agar plates slowed the growth of P. freudenreichii strains and impaired the color of the colonies. Based on the vitamin assays, all 14 strains of P. freudenreichii tested produced active vitamin B12 in humans, but there were differences in the amounts of vitamins produced per strain. Strain-specific differences were also observed in the ratios of vitamin forms produced (vitamin B12 / pseudovitamin).

Bacteria coordinate the virulence factor production and biofilm formation by activating the mechanism of intercellular communication called quorum sensing (QS). The biofilm matrix protects bacteria against variety of stress conditions, including e.g., effects of antibiotics and disinfectants. QS inhibitors (QSI) are molecules that can inhibit the QS mechanism. QQ is a QSI inhibitor that interrupts the cell-to-cell signaling already outside of the bacterial cell. Dairy propionic acid bacteria have known antimicrobial properties but their ability to produce anti-QS compounds have not yet been studied. Previous studies have shown positive results of the anti-QS activity exerted by lactobacilli, but more research is needed to uncover mechanistic details behind their QS-inhibitory effects. The aim of this study was to investigate the anti-QS and QQ activity of propionic bacteria and lactobacilli. The used method was an in-house optimized screening method based on using wild-type and mutant strains of Chromobacterium violaceum. This bioreporter produces a QS-mediated, measurable color pigment. Here, the limit of potential QSI and QQ inhibition was set to 50 % inhibition. Viability of bioreporter was analyzed by resazurin staining. Propionibacterium freudenreichii strains demonstrated both the QSI (64–71%) and QQ (52–60%) activities against the tested C. violaceum reporters. In the case of lactobacilli, Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus GG, Limosilactobacillus mucosae 2674, Lactobacillus acidophilus 80, Lactobacillus curvatus 453 and Lactobacillus kefiri 3070 inhibited the QS-activation of the wild-type bioreporter strain by 45 to 90 %. There was a great variability in the anti-QS screening assays involving the mutant strain, which may be explained by the possible sensitivity of the compounds to the analysis conditions used or more sensitive response of the mutant strain to the tested agents. In conclusion, the obtained results show that L. acidophilus 80 produced bactericidal compounds. L. reuteri 410 did not have any effect on the QS-indicator production in wild-type bioreporter but was able to inhibit QS-induction in the mutant reporter by 72% (QQ activity). This study showed that P. freudenreichii strains as well as certain lactobacilli have an ability to produce QSI and QQ activity against some gram-negative biofilm pathogens. Pathogens have different QS mechanisms and experiments with C. violaceum strains are only one way to screen for anti-QS compounds. Therefore, validation of the obtained findings requires complementary screening assays against other bacterial bioreporters, involving both gram-negative and gram-positive biofilm bacteria.

Early detection of microbial contamination is the key issue for minimizing quality deviations in the beverage industry. Strict standard of process hygiene is one of the best guarantee for the production of microbiologically safe products. The aim of this thesis was to study the efficiency of CIP (cleaning in place) washes, the development of product residues and microbial counts during production cycle, and the surface cleanliness at different points in the production chain at target company beverage plants. In the thesis the microbiological hygiene of the CIP rinse samples from five production lines were studied by using traditional culture methods and ATP measurements. Analyzes of product rinsing samples were used to model the development of product residues and microbial counts during production cycle. Microbiological analyzes of the bottled products were conducted according to standard quality control practices using the filtration and/or pipetting method. A selective DRBC medium was also tested in the analytics of aquatic samples and end products with high microbiological risk. The microbiological cleanliness of critical process surfaces was determined by ATP measurement and Hygicult TPC hygiene test. The results revealed that the deviations observed in the microbiological cultures of the CIP rinse samples were not reflected in the ATP measurement or in the end product analyzes. According to ATP measurements of the CIP rinse samples, 95.7% of the samples were acceptable. Based on the cultivation results, the microbiological quality of the end products was at a good level, which acts as an indicator of the success of CIP wash and hygiene practices. Either there was no significant microbiological growth on Hygicult TPC plates used to test surface cleanliness. On the other hand, organic product residues were detected with ATP measurements during the production, which needs to be taken into account when optimizing hygiene practices. Overall, the process hygiene of the target company is at a good level. However, based on the results of the study, there was no clear relationship between traditional cultivation methods and the ATP method. The bioluminescence technology is not a substitute for microbiological cultivation method, but it is a valid method for monitoring process hygiene to indicate total organic contamination of the target. In a further research it would be beneficial to determine the natural ATP concentration of the raw water used by the target company to facilitate interpretation of RLU values in water samples.

Faba bean (Vicia faba) is considered as promising protein plant for increasing protein self-sufficiency. Still, raw faba bean has not been as good protein feed for dairy cows as rapeseed meal. This experiment was conducted to test industrially heat-treated and dehulled faba bean as replacement for rapeseed meal in dairy cows either alone or with rumen-protected methionine. The experiment was designed as three times repeated 4 × 4 latin square. Cows were fed ad libitum total-mixed-ration, which consisted of timothy and meadow fescue silage, cereal based concentrate, and isonitrogenous protein component. The four feedings were control feeding without protein concentrate, rapeseed meal feeding, faba bean feeding, and faba bean feeding with rumen-protected methionine. Feed and nutrients intake and apparent whole-tract digestibility, milk yield and its composition, ruminal pH, volatile fatty acids and ammonia, and plasma amino acids and metabolites were measured. Results were statistically analysed using the Mixed-procedur of SAS-program. Protein feeds increased dry matter intake 1.3 kg/d and milk yield 1.2 kg/d compared to control feeding (dry matter intake 22.5 kg/d and milk yield 30.7 kg/d), and they increased milk protein concentration and protein and fat yields compared to control. Substitution of rapeseed with faba bean decreased dry matter intake but milk yield and milk protein and fat concentration remained unchanged. Rumen-protected methionine increased milk protein concentration but did not have any effect on milk, protein or fat yields. Amino acid intake increased when protein feeds were fed, and cows given rapeseed had higher amino acid intake compared to those given faba bean. Essential amino acid concentration in plasma was higher with increased feed protein level but there were no differences between rapeseed and faba bean diets despite difference in amino acid intake. Rumen-protected methionine increased plasma methionine concentration (30.8 mmol/l compared to 18.2 mmol/l) but had no effect on concentrations of other amino acids. According to this study industrially heat-treated faba bean would be comparable protein feed to rapeseed meal but the results should be interpreted cautiously due to low production responses to protein supplementation. Rumen-protected methionine had quite small impact on milk yield, and more information is needed concerning its use to balance amino acid supply on cows fed faba bean.