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Animal transport has been causing public debate during the last few years. Almost all production animals are transported at least once during their lifetime. It is well known that transport can be detrimental to animal welfare in many ways and cause increased morbidity and mortality. A longer transport time is often associated with decreased welfare more than a shorter transport time. However, shorter transport time does not necessarily guarantee better welfare of animals. Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) is common in cattle and a usual cause for antimicrobial treatment. It is often transmitted from one animal to another in situations where animals from different origins are commingled. Especially animals that are young or have poor immunity are likely to get ill. That is why calves, that often are collected from different farms and transported to rearing units or to abattoirs, are at risk of getting respiratory infections. The aim of this study was to find out how transport time affects average daily gain and the likelihood of getting a BRD diagnosis among calves that were transported. There were 334 bull calves that were transported to a rearing unit in Western Finland in 2017. Transport time, diagnoses and given antimicrobial treatments as well as daily gain of the calves were recorded. The age of the calves at transport varied between 10 and 45 days. According to the results, longer transport time shortened the time until the first antimicrobial treatment (p = 0.044, coeff. = -0.942). Transport time was not associated with BRD diagnosis at the first clinical examination (p = 0.529, OR = 1.029) but it was positively associated with increased daily gain (p = 0.024, coeff. 0.007). These results might partly be explained by which areas the calves originated from and indicate that transport time did not necessarily play a big role in welfare of the transported calves in this study.

Pristine mires are an important carbon storage, but after drainage, the carbon is released from the peat through aerobic decomposition. In Finland, half of the original mire area has been drained, mainly for forestry purposes. Majority (83 %) of the drained area is suitable for forestry. Out of the forestry-suited drained peatlands, the nutrient-rich forestry drained peatlands emit high amounts of CO2 due to high aerobic decomposition as nutrient-rich conditions are favourable for decomposing bacteria. Rewetting of these nutrient-rich peatlands could offer a solution for halting the CO2 emission, but the CH4 emission increases after rewetting. The studies show differing results of CH4 emission from nutrient-rich rewetted peatlands. There are studies reporting both high and low emission of CH4 from nutrient-rich peatlands, and differing studies on how the emission evolves in time. This thesis focused on three variables that could affect the CH4 emission: time from rewetting, water level and site type. There were 27 different study sites at 8 locations. These sites were rewetted 3 to 28 years prior to measurements and represented nutrient-rich tree-covered peatlands (Rhtkg, Mtkg, Ptkg). Ptkg was the least nutrient-rich site type in the study. The CH4 flux was measured with a chamber method from July to November of 2021. Water level was monitored with loggers and manual measurements. The data was analysed with linear regression and analysis of variance, depending on the independent variable. Mean CH4 fluxes were used to compare sites with each other. The results show that water level affects the CH4 emission at statistically significant level. When water level is deeper than 10cm below ground level, the CH4 emission is low. One site differed from this trend and despite the high water level, the CH4 emission was close to zero. Time from rewetting did not affect CH4 emission at statistically significant level, but there was a visible trend of older rewetted peatlands emitting less than more recently rewetted ones. This finding was contradicting to the literature as it was supposed that the more recently rewetted peatlands emit less CH4. Out of site types, the Mtkg2 and Rhtkg site types emitted most, but there was no statistical significance. When analysed with using both the water level and site type, there were statistical differences between site types. When comparing mean CH4 emissions from nutrient-rich (Rhtkg+Mtkg) and least nutrient-rich (Ptkg) peatlands at the same water level, the Ptkg sites emitted less, but not at a statistically significant level. The findings indicate that, when rewetting a nutrient-rich tree-covered peatland, it should be done so that the water-level does not rise above 10cm, but this is very difficult or impossible to regulate. Restoration process and how it develops is difficult to foresee and the end-result might differ. Research on CH4 emissions from rewetted nutrient-rich peatlands and what affects it is increasingly important as CH4 affects the climate change in the near future.

Biochars are produced from organic materials using pyrolysis and are used as a soil amendment to improve soil fertility and plant growth. Biochars are particularly beneficial to soils with high acidity, low carbon (C) content, nitrogen (N) content and other nutrient contents. However, it is not well-studied whether the beneficial effects of a biochar exist for the long-term. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of one-time application of spruce biochar on soil and barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) properties in the long-term. For this purpose, soil and plant properties were measured from the biochar field experiment in a boreal nutrient deficient Umbrisol where spruce biochar was applied eight years earlier. The experiment had a split-plot design with biochar application rates (0, 5, 10, 20 and 30 t ha-1) as the main-plot factor. The effects of fertilisers alone and their interaction with biochar were studied with three treatments (control, mineral fertiliser and meat bone meal (MBM)) as the sub-plot factor. Soil moisture content at 0–15 cm depth, as well as pH, plant available nutrients, total C and N content and C/N ratio of the soil were measured. Barley growth was assessed indirectly by measuring leaf chlorophyll content (SPAD), leaf area index (LAI), plant stand density, biomass, C and N content, C/N ratio, grain yield and weight of 1000 grains (TGW). No consistent significant effects of biochar on soil moisture content or soil chemical properties were observed. Biochar application did not have significant effects on leaf chlorophyll, leaf area index, plant density or biomass of barley. The highest biochar application rate of 30 t ha-1 tended to increase grain yield and TGW but the increases were not statistically significant. Mineral and MBM fertilisers produced similar grain yields although N was likely less available from MBM earlier in the growing season. Biochar and fertiliser interaction did not have significant effects on any of the measured properties. The lack of effects of biochar may be explained by the high amount of initial soil organic matter as well as low liming effect and low nutrient content of the used biochar. In addition, the lack of significant effects of biochar also suggests loss of biochar from topsoil due to weathering and downward displacement of biochar over the period of eight years. In this study, biochar application did not have negative consequences on the measured soil and crop properties. Therefore, it should be safe to use. Biochars may provide a viable option to sequester carbon in boreal agriculture. Further research on this is still needed to investigate the long-term effects of different types of biochars on different types of soils.

Forest industries of many forest-rich Nordic nations have traditionally been highly export oriented, where domestic demand is not sufficient to guarantee the existing production capacity. Under these circumstances the exchange rate, the value of the domestic currency relative to that of the trading partners, becomes then one of the most important macroeconomic considerations. In the short run it determines the profitability and competitiveness, and thus each firm’s survival. In the long run, firms may e.g. hedge against unfavourable currency fluctuations or anticipate future currency developments and stipulate them in their long-term sales contracts. Firms also have the possibility to act strategically by absorbing some or all of a currency change in export prices and this way affecting traded quantities. Although theoretical contributions to the literature fail to conclusively validate this hypothesis and the results of empirical estimations are widely mixed, studies concerning forest products trade have often found evidence of exchange rate effects on traded quantities. Previous studies concerning Finnish forest product exports have reported the use of exchange rate changes to alter prices in the buyer’s currency, especially as a consequence of deliberate currency fixing. For example devaluations, often used to downsize the effect of a rising domestic cost level, have increased the price competitiveness and export quantities of Finnish forest industry firms. Realization of the third phase of the European Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) on the beginning of 1999 merged the participating countries’ currencies into the euro at an irrevocable fixed rate, which then eliminated the possibility to independently realign the currency value. Moreover, exchange rate effects, and hence exchange rate risks, have exclusively been vanished from intra-EMU trade. This has meant the opening of a whole new market for many small open economies. At the same time, a change in the business environment could have caused severe adaptation problems to some Finnish forest industry firms. The aim of the present study is to examine the effects of Finland’s EMU participation on its sawnwood exports to the main export markets in United Kingdom and Germany. As Finland’s most important competitor Sweden decided to remain outside the monetary union, it was chosen to serve as a reference point for the possible effects the loss of an independent monetary policy has had. Weakening of the krone against the euro for the past years has brought additional interest on the topic. The emphasis is on studying relative prices and its effects on traded quantities through the long-run exchange rate pass-through phenomenon for the period 1995- 2008. The empirical estimation is carried out by applying Johansen’s cointegration method for the separate partial equilibrium model systems, for each bilateral trade of Finland and Sweden to both destination markets. The results give evidence that Finnish sawnwood exports have been affected to a great extent by currency movements. Depreciations of the euro have boosted export demand, whereas appreciations have, in turn, dampened imports from Finland. The pricing strategy exploited by Swedish exporters has been somewhat opposite to Finnish exporters’. This has meant both a more stable price for Swedish sawnwood importers and export demand faced by Swedish exporters. These findings further suggest only minor negative effects of Swedish krone depreciations on Finnish sawnwood firms’ price competitiveness. Nevertheless, Swedish exporters have been able to achieve higher profits, which seems to have been an important consideration behind some recent shifts of production from Finland to Sweden.

The expanding road network and increasing traffic volumes impose a barrier between different wildlife habitats and populations. Wildlife-vehicle collisions are a factor that affects wildlife, human safety, and property. Road Wildlife crossing structures, such as overpasses and underpasses, are built to enable landscape connectivity, improve traffic safety, and mitigate the impact roads have on wildlife. Crossings structures include structures that are built only for wildlife use or for the use of both wildlife and humans. The latter are called multiuse overpasses. Building large structures, like crossing structures, is expensive, therefore it is more cost-effective to build crossing structures suitable for both wildlife and humans. Human disturbance can influence the effectivity of crossing structures. Information about how human disturbance affects wildlife is needed to study the effectiveness of multiuse overpasses. In this thesis I evaluated the effects human disturbance have on ungulate multiuse overpass use. Using camera trap data from 9 multiuse overpasses located in southern Finland, I studied the effect of different human disturbances (non-motorized, motorized) on different ungulate species, and possible spatiotemporal avoidance. The overpasses were located on highway 1 between Helsinki and Turku, on highway 7 between Loviisa and Vironlahti, and on highway 4 in Heinola. All overpasses had a landscaped side with vegetation and a gravel or dirt road. The camera traps were located in the middle of the overpass, approximately one meter above ground level. I considered one camera trap picture to be one individual crossing event, regardless of the number of animals in the picture. During the monitoring period from December 2019 to May 2020, and November 2020, I detected 730 ungulate crossings, made by moose (Alces alces), white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), and roe deer (Capreolus capreolus). There were 4 707 crossings made by humans hiking, dog walking, cycling, driving a car, a motorbike, a snowmobile, a tractor, or a truck. While ungulates used the overpasses most active during the early evening, human activity peaked during the day. The results show that the time between non-motorized disturbance and an ungulate crossing was longer than the time between motorized disturbance and an ungulate crossing. The presence of spatiotemporal avoidance was evaluated by comparing time differences between crossing type pairs. I studied the possible spatiotemporal avoidance by calculating time differences between an ungulate crossing after an ungulate, and an ungulate crossing after a human. The reaction to human disturbance differed between the species, with only moose showing signs of spatiotemporal avoidance when comparing times between a moose crossing after a moose and a moose crossing after a human. Roe deer and white-tailed deer did not show signs of spatiotemporal avoidance. An explanation for the results regarding spatiotemporal avoidance, can be linked to the differences in ungulates natural habitats when comparing moose, roe deer and white-tailed deer. Moose ́s preferred habitat is large, forested areas, whereas roe deer and white-tailed deer occupy farmland, suburban areas, and areas in proximity to humans. The natural habitat of moose in itself results in minimal contact with humans. The results of this thesis show that multiuse overpasses are to some extent successful, in working as a crossing structure for both ungulates and humans. The results regarding avoidance from moose, indicate that the effects of human-caused disturbance need to be considered with severity. Therefore, we cannot cling to the thought that multiuse overpasses would be sufficient for all species in every situation, but we need to be prepared to provide crossing structures for only wildlife use or limit the human use of crossing structures if needed.

In the thesis, the effects of six different lactic acid bacteria (LAB) species on properties of sour beer was studied. As the fermentation by LAB may yield unexpected results, and as the prediction of specific organoleptic compounds present in LAB-fermented sour beers has proven to be challenging, sensory and chemical properties of sour beers fermented with selected LAB was assessed. The main research question was “are there statistically significant differences between the different sensory properties of the sour beers produced with different LAB species?”. Use of Lactobacillus plantarum, L. rhamnosus, L. brevis, L. buchneri, L. delbrueckii and previ-ously unreported in sour beer brewing, L. alimentarius, was assessed. Fermentation was carried over approximately six weeks, during which the changes in viable cell density, pH, refractive index, organic acid and ethanol (using PDA/RI) and sugar compositions (using HPAEC-PAD) were assessed. Sensory evaluation was performed in two parts: Overall preference rank test with untrained panellists and descriptive analysis with trained panellists. Differences were found in the results of viable cell count, organic acid composition and descriptive sensory analysis. Increase in lactic, acetic and succinic acid and ethanol over the fermentation period was detected. Decrease in citric acid, maltose, glucose and sucrose was detected. Novel L. alimentarius yielded fastest growth rate, with encouraging results from sensory analysis. L. delbrueckii did not grow in the substrate media, allowing possible infection to take place. L. brevis and L. buchneri yielded acetic acid concentrations detectable in sensory and chemical analysis. Increased lactic acid concentration was associated with increased overall rank, raspberry aroma and apple and vinous flavours, with negative correlation to butyric, rancid and yeasty flavours and bitter aftertaste. Further studies are suggested to assess the effects of fermentation temperature, O2 availability, wort composition and buffering capacity on the results of the LAB fermentations.

Raw milk storage continues to be a problem for both the developed and developing worlds until new technologies to properly store the milk are readily available to both economies during cold storage. Major causes of spoilage of raw milk are psychrotrophic bacteria belonging to the genus Pseudomonas. In order to extend the shelf life of raw milk, more knowledge of the nitrogen (N2) gas flushing and lactoperoxidase system (LP-s) along with refrigeration on microflora is required and for this reason, a study has been set up. Three experiments where raw milk was stored at 60C for 3 and 7 days under the LP-s and N2-flushing treatment with a control were considered. The milk samples at various conditions were analyzed for total bacterial counts (TBA), psychrotrophs, Gram-negative bacteria, lipase and protease producers; also, the pH was followed. 210 isolates were selected to represent the milk samples for the 3 experiments. All the isolates were characterized by the determination of their spoilage and phenotypic features: proteolytic, lipolytic, phospholipase activities, hemolytic factors and CLP production. In the end, N2-flushing showed a long term (7 days) inhibition of all bacteria types compared to LP-s (which better inhibited bacteria at 3 days) and compared to the control. 11 isolates were further subjected to 16S rRNA partial sequencing to adequately identify them and BLAST GenBank proposed the presence of representatives of the Pseudomonas genus for the 11 isolates. Continuous N2-flushing and activation of LP-s have demonstrated the ability to lower bacterial population in milk to varying degrees.

Background. To achieve healthier diets and to support the transition towards more sustainable food systems, animal protein needs to be replaced with plant-based protein sources as suggested by the EAT-Lancet commission. However, plant-based diets may be harmful to bone health due to lower intakes of vitamin D and calcium. Additionally, whether the different amino acid profiles of plant and animal proteins contribute to bone health has not been addressed. Objectives. The aim was to investigate whether partial replacement of red and processed meat with legumes affects bone turnover and whether the intake of individual amino acids from diverse sources play a role in this relationship. In addition, the intake of nutrients important for bone health such as vitamin D and calcium were examined. Materials and methods. The study was a six-week partly controlled randomized clinical trial carried out in a parallel design. 102 healthy men aged 20 – 65 years were stratified into two groups. The meat group consumed 760 g of boneless and cooked red and processed meat per week corresponding to 25 % of the total protein intake. The legume group consumed legume-based products corresponding to 20 % of the total protein intake and 200 g of red and processed meat per week corresponding to 5% of total protein intake. The rest of the diet was not controlled. Bone turnover and mineral metabolism markers were analyzed from the blood samples. Analysis of covariance (adjust for baseline values) was used to analyze the differences between the groups. Nutrient intake was recorded with 4-day food records and analyzed with t-test. Intakes of protein, amino acids, and bone-related nutrients were of interest. Results. No differences in bone formation (bone-specific alkaline phosphatase) or bone resorption markers (tartrate-resistant acid phosphatase 5b) were observed between the diet groups (P=0.875 and P=0.95). Neither parathyroid hormone, 25-hydroxyvitamin D, calcium, or phosphate concentrations differed between the groups (P=0.32, P=0.32, P=0.826, P=0.32, respectively). Parathyroid hormone concentrations increased (meat P=0.006; legume P< 0.001) and 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations decreased significantly in both groups (meat P=0.043; legume P=0.018). Protein, calcium, and vitamin D intakes did not differ between the groups at the endpoint (P=0.276, P=0.271 P=0.840, respectively). Regarding individual amino acids, methionine intake was higher in the meat group (P=0.041) whereas the legume group had higher intakes of arginine (P< 0.001), asparagine and aspartic acid (P=0.001), glutamine and glutamic acid (P=0.008), leucine (P=0.045) phenylalanine (P=0.001), proline (P=0.015), serine (P=0.046) and tyrosine (P=0.029). Mean intakes of nutrients and essential amino acids in both groups were met the recommendations. Conclusions: Our results suggest that increasing the proportion of plant-based protein by replacing red and processed meat in the diet does not cause a risk for bone health and provides adequate amounts of essential amino acids and nutrients. However, it seems that in the present study differing amino acid intakes did not contribute to bone turnover.

Background Endogenous formation of possibly carcinogenic N-nitroso compounds may partly explain the association between red and processed meat and colorectal cancer. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of partial replacement of red and processed meat with legumes on the fecal total and heme-originated N-nitroso compounds (NOC) in healthy working-aged Finnish men. Methods The study was a 6-wk parallel design randomized clinical trial with two groups following either a diet supplemented with red and processed meat or a diet supplemented with legumes and red and processed meat. Total and heme-originated NOCs were analyzed from fecal homogenates using Ecomedics CLD 88. Statistical analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics 27. Independent samples t-test and Chi-Square test were used to assess the differences between the intervention groups at the baseline. Differences in total and heme-originated NOCs between the intervention groups at the endpoint were analyzed using ANCOVA (adjusted for baseline values). For correlations, Pearson correlation was used. Results 102 men completed the study. No significant differences between the groups were reported at the baseline. At the endpoint, fecal concentrations of total NOC (p < 0.0001) and heme-originated NOC (p < 0.0001) were lower in the legume and red meat group than in the red meat group. A moderate negative correlation between stool volume and NOC concentrations was observed. Conclusions The results indicate that even a partial replacement of red and processed meat with legume products can significantly reduce the total and heme-originated NOC concentrations in feces and potentially reduce the risk for the development of CRC.

Osprey Pandion haliaetus has been under a strict surveillance of the nature conservationists and a conservation icon since the early 70’s. At that time the accumulation of persistent environmental toxins and pollutants lowered the populations of many birds of prey to low levels, threatening the survival of entire species. Nowadays osprey is one of the successful models of endangered species protection. Because of its status osprey is very thoroughly studied raptor. Due to environmental toxins many birds of prey suffered from eggshell thinning and lost clutches till the end of 1970’s. Eggshell thinning has later stopped and is now reverting, but after the start of intense studying of the birds other threats have been observed to reduce reproductive success. Many earlier studies have suggested that extreme weather conditions may have an effect on the nesting success of diurnal birds of prey. In osprey´s case many researchers have examined the effects of different weather patterns to foraging success and food delivery, but a specific review over their effects on the nesting success hasn’t been conducted so far. In this study I focus on the effects of different weather factors and their contemporary nesting success. I study a nature conservation based supplementary feeding pond‘s effect to the local osprey population’s reproductive success, combined with the weather variables and the density of nesting pairs. Osprey is recorded to fly approximately 3–15 km on its foraging trips. At their longest these fishing trips can be over 40 km long one-way. The Osprey Center, working in Pohtiolampi at Kangasala (61° 26.876' N, 24° 7.705' E), in Southern Finland, feeds the local ospreys with living rainbow trout from an old fish farm pool. In theory, the birds nesting or living near the supplementary feeding pond benefit from this in a form of easy sustenance. The fish move near the water surface and are thus available all the time. Especially during bad weather conditions the pond is frequently visited by nesting ospreys. In this study I examine 1) does supplementary feeding have an effect on the nesting success of the local osprey population, 2) what is the role of weather factors affecting the breeding success and 3) does supplementary feeding have an effect on nesting density? I used 16 years of weather and breeding data (1997–2012) and evaluated the individual and combined weather variables and their possible effects on nesting success and brood production, comparing study and control area. I set my study area in a shape of a circle with 30 km radius. Pohtiolampi feeding pond was placed in the center of the study area, surrounded by a vast labyrinthine lake area. For the control area’s and study area's ecosystems to be as much alike as possible, I established the control area, also in a form of a circle and continuing the next 30 km, to start where the study area ended (see: Map 1.). I calculated the covariance and Akaike weights of different weather variables and annual nesting success with R (2.15.0) statistical calculation program. Collinearity was assessed with variance inflation factors (VIF). Generalized linear mixed models (GLM), to asses simultaneously the role of weather variables and the nesting success of both study and control area, were used. Finally the scenarios were arranged in significance order by their AICc values (Akaike information criterion adjusted for finite sample size). After the comparing analysis, I repeated the calculations also without the division to study and control area, gaining information about the effects of weather variables in general. I also calculated the proportional effects of different land use types to the nesting density of the local osprey population by using ArcGIS mapping tool and compared the results between study and control area. My results indicate that supplementary feeding does not influence the nesting success. Same annual average of young fledged the nests each year, regardless of the area. Weather variables, however, showed some effect on the nesting success when viewing the entire population. The assembled weather data shows examples of weaker nesting success in summers with prolonged storms, rainy weather or low average temperature. However, levels of significance, derived from the data, are still too low to be used as generalizations. Only three day long storms had a better AIC weight than the null model. I presume that the good fishing waters, wind shelter and shoreline forests are possible explanations to this trend. Most harmful weather to the osprey nestlings was a prolonged storm (? 7 m/s wind) and rainy summers. The nesting density of osprey was recorded to be significantly higher in the study area than in the control area, when viewing the total land acreage. Moreover, I recorded that the density in the study area grew up to almost four times the number of control area, when studying the acreage of potential nesting areas. When viewing the area of foraging waters the difference was reduced to 1.5 fold. I conclude that the local osprey population benefits from the supplementary feeding area by nesting more densely near the abundant food source and thus producing more young per km².