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Browsing by discipline "Mikrobiologi"

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  • Rytövuori, Suvi (2017)
    Phycobilins are the main light harvesting pigments in picocyanobacteria. Chlorophyll-a is the main photosynthetic pigment in cyanobacteria as in all phytoplankton. In cyanobacteria, most of chl-a is positioned within the non-fluorescing photosystem I (PSI). Cyanobacteria phycobiliproteins are the main photosynthetic pigments in photosystem II (PSII). Phycobilins fluorescence can be used to help assess the presence and monitoring of cyanobacteria. The fluorescence intensity depends on the examined cyanobacteria group, pigment concentration and phytoplankton growth phase. In this research I studied, using flow-through fluorometers, where the phycoerythrin (PE) fluorescence is originating from and its variation in the Baltic Sea. PE fluorescence signal measured with flow-through fluorometers was also compared with other optical measurements. This study was performed in summer 2016 as part of Alg@line and JERICO-Next projects. Flow-through fluorometers (TriOS and Chelsea) were installed to M/S Finnmaid ship, which trafficked regularly on its route Helsinki–Travemünde. The automated flow-through sensors onboard M/S Finnpartner collected continuous data during 25.5–31.8.2016. Along the route Travemünde-Helsinki, a refrigerated sampler collected water samples once a week from 3 stations. Water samples acted as a reference samples for PE fluorescence signal analysis. Water samples were separated by filtration into three size fractions (total < 2 µm, and < 0.2 µm) and an excitation-emission spectrum was measured. The number of picocyanobacteria/ml, their surface area/ml and biovolume/ml was calculated using epifluorescence microscope. The number of PE-containing picocyanobacteria cells/ml and size was determined by flow cytometer and number of larger PE-containing phytoplankton cells, their size and taxonomy was determined using FlowCam. Most of the PE-fluorescence measured during summer 2016 was originating from pico-fraction. There was not a clear connection between flow-through PE fluorometers and other optical measurements. PE signal originating from fluorometers did not correlate with total fluorescence signal measured with spectrofluorometer. A reason for this can be that the sample has suffered preservation and transport due to the elapsed time. Some of the optical measurements correlated well with each other, and some did not. Excitation-emission spectrum measured from pico-fraction correlated with picocyanobacteria surface area/ml calculated with epifluorescence microscope. This can be explained by the fact that picocyanobacteria pigments are mainly located in the cell membrane. Number of cells/ml calculated with flow cytometer was much lower than the number/ml calculated with epifluorescence microscope. Sample could have been too dense when multiple cells has been interpreted as one larger cell. The program used for the grouping of cells could have also left low PE fluorescence value containing cells without counts. PE fluorescence originating from over 2 µm size fraction measured with spectrofluorometer and fluorescence originating from over 3 µm fraction pictured with FlowCam was not observed similar incidence of various stations in the summer of 2016. PE fluorometers alone are not sufficient for monitoring picocyanobacteria cells containing phycoerythrin in the Baltic Sea but PE fluorometers can be used as support to other methods.
  • Nieminen, Iina (2015)
    The Baltic Sea is one of the most extensive oxygen-depleted (hypoxic) areas. The hypoxic areas in the Baltic Sea are becoming more common due to climate change and anthropogenic eutrophication. The influence of hypoxia on sediment communities is in general well known, but the impact of different degrees of hypoxic stress on the functions of benthic microbial communities is less studied. Although the impact of microbes on benthic ecosystem functioning can be significant, the changes caused by hypoxia disturbed microbial communities are not well known. These changes can affect other organisms and environment globally because microbes influence nutrient and element cycles. Also some microbial species produce toxic hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in anaerobic conditions. This study investigated sandy sediments taken from the Baltic Sea whose organism communities were artificially disturbed by covering sediment plots with oxygen impermeable plastic sheets. Covering induced artificially hypoxia (< 2 ml O2 l-1) of different durations for 0, 3, 7 and 48 days. This thesis concentrated studying the bacterial communities of the disturbed sediments. Change in bacterial community was observed by terminal restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis (T-RFLP). The aim was find out how bacterial community composition and diversity changed in sediments influenced by increasing hypoxic disturbance. The conducted observations indicated how changes within the bacterial community can influence other organisms and environment. Results obtained by permutational ANOVA testing indicated that bacterial community composition, especially bacterial biodiversity, was influenced by artificially induced hypoxia lasting 48 days. A slight decrease in bacterial diversity was seen already after 7 days hypoxia. Overall bacterial community was more resistant to disturbance than animal fauna, which has been studied in parallel research (Villnäs ym. 2012). H2S-producing deltaproteobacteria (e.g. Desulfatiferula, Desulfovibrio and Desulfofustis) were observed in sediments which were disturbed the longest, which explains the H2S production detected in chemical data of the parallel study. This may have caused a decrease in macrofauna. Amounts of sulfate-reducing bacteria correlated with increases in ammonium and silicate, which may increase both eutrophication and anoxia in an aquatic system. Results indicated that bacterial community was disturbed due to increasing hypoxia, and changes in the bacterial community correlated with changes in chemical parameters. Observations suggest that changes in the composition of a bacterial community may influence an entire ecosystem. The composition of microbial communities should be taken into account when studying the impact of environmental disturbances on various ecosystems.
  • Eiriö, Marita (2018)
    The literature review of the study focused on intestinal microbiota and the connection between its imbalance and Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD). Specific focus was on communication between microbes and human host through congenital immune defense. The purpose of the experimental phase was to research in vitro, the adherence of the human Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG, Bifidobacterium bifidum strain DSM20456 and the Lactobacillus acidophilus strain LAB20 of canine and the EPS mutant strain LAB20 to Caco-2 and HT-29 cell lines and mucus. The adhesion method was based on bacterial cells that were marked with tritium. The next experiment was whether the bacteria could reduce inflammatory response in the LPS-induced HT-29 cell line. HT-29 cells produced inflammatory mediator IL-8, and its concentration was measured by collecting the supernatant above the cells and measuring the IL-8 concentration with the ELISA-method. In conclusion, the effect of adhesin proteins SpaC and BopA as anti-inflammatory components was tested. L. rhamnosus GG, B. bifidum DSM20456 and L. acidophilus LAB20 adhered to the HT-29, Caro-2 cells of epithelial cell lines and to mucus. LAB20 EPS mutants did not adhere to mucus at all, so the EPS-construction of the strain LAB20 would appear to be relevant to the bacteria’s adherence. L. rhamnosus GG, B. bifidum DSM20456 and L. acidophilus LAB20 strains showed anti-inflammatory properties. They significantly reduced IL-8 yield in the LPS-induced inflammatory response in the HT-29 cell line. L. acidophilus LAB20 significantly reduced the yield of IL-8 in one test, and therefore the result of this study is indicative. LAB20 EPS mutants did not cut the IL-8 yield, so EPS structures may be responsible for the anti-inflammatory feature of the strain LAB20. Bacteria SpaC- and BopA-adhesin proteins showed pro-inflammatory properties, i.e. an inflammatory response in the HT-29 cell line. The results showed that L. rhamnosus GG, B. bifidum DSM20456 and L. acidophilus LAB20 strains have adhesion and anti-inflammatory properties. The LAB20 is a new and potential probiotic for canines. B. bifidum also showed anti-inflammatory properties, so it could also act as a palliative for IBD. The SpaC and BopA adhesin proteins did not show any anti-inflammatory effects, but they still proved to be stimulating host's immune defense, which plays an important role in the host's immune system regulation. EPS structures may convey the LAB20 adhesion to mucus and anti-inflammatory properties.
  • Lång, Mika (2017)
    Alphaviruses are single-stranded positive-sense RNA viruses that have been the cause of numerous epidemics in the past decades. The viral genome codes four nonstructural proteins that are associated with viral RNA replication. The translation product is a polyprotein from which the individual nonstructural proteins are cleaved. The genome is transcribed by the nonstructural proteins to produce a negative strand, which acts as a template in the synthesis of positive strands. The subgenomic RNA, which codes the structural proteins, is transcribed from the negative template strand. The replication of genomic and subgenomic RNA strands is associated with replication complexes composed of the nonstructural proteins. The replication complexes are housed in membrane invaginations called spherules on the plasma membrane and endolysosomal vesicles. Transfection of plasmids expressing viral replicase proteins and template RNA can also induce formation of replication complexes in addition to live virus infection. Purification of the replication complexes is necessary for detailed functional and structural analysis. In this work, two methods were used in the purification of replication complexes. In the first method, mammalian cells were infected with viruses and replication complexes were blocked on the plasma membrane by drug treatment to prevent transport to endolysosomal vesicles. Cells were lysed and nuclei were removed by centrifugation. The postnuclear supernatant was sedimented by ultracentrifugation in a discontinuous gradient. The gradient was fractionated and the fraction containing the replication complexes was subjected to equilibrium ultracentrifugation to separate particles by density. The fraction containing the replication complexes was studied using electron microscope, and protein and lipid analysis. In the second method, mammalian cells were transfected with plasmids expressing a template RNA and the viral polyprotein to induce formation of replication complexes. A sequence coding hemagglutinin peptide had been inserted into the polyprotein sequence coding for the nonstructural protein with polymerase activity. Cells were lysed and nuclei were removed. Rreplication complexes were immunocaptured using the hemagglutinin tag by subjecting the supernatant to anti-HA agarose beads. Captured replication complexes were eluted with Laemmli sample buffer and purification was examined using Western blotting. Spherules associated with replication complexes were observed using electron microscope and the presence of nonstructural proteins was confirmed with antibodies. Spherules were observed in low numbers and Western blotting revealed that samples contained cellular contaminants. Purification of replication complexes using immunocapture was very low, but more than that of untagged samples. Although significant purification of replication complexes was not achieved, progress was made in the optimization of the methods.
  • Yang, Xiaochang (2019)
    Campylobacter jejuni is one of the leading causes of human gastroenteritis. Globally, there has been an increasing trend in the incidence of campylobacteriosis. In the European Union, about 200,000 cases of campylobacteriosis are reported annually. C. jejuni 4031 was isolated from a water outbreak in Finland. This strain belongs to the ST-45 clonal complex. According to a previous study, this population has been stable over time and space and has showed low levels of genomic diversity compared with other populations. Therefore, it is meaningful to investigate the evolutionary mechanisms and ecological conditions behind these clones. The aim of this study was to investigate the evolution of C. jejuni 4031 by whole genome sequencing and bioinformatics tools, characterizing the rate and molecular spectrum of spontaneous mutation in these clones. In addition, the transformation pattern of C. jejuni 4031 was to be studied. This study composed of three independent experiments: mutation accumulation experiment, fluctuation analysis, and transformation cycle experiment, to investigate mutation and recombination events, respectively. The C. jejuni 4031 grown for 220 generations by single colony passaging method in NB2 agar plate and thereafter named C. jejuni 4031x12 was used as starting material for the studies. In total of 76 genomes from both mutation accumulation experiments and transformation cycle experiments, were subject to SNP calling. Results showed that C. jejuni 4031x12 could accumulate spontaneous mutations at a relatively low rate (4.1x10-10 mutation per generation per nucleotide) than conventional estimates, with mutational bias towards G:C>A:T transitions and coding regions. The fluctuation analysis proves that C. jejuni 4031x12 could obtain antibiotic resistance via transformation. However, no recombination events were observed from SNP results. In conclusion, C. jejuni 4031 has evolved at a much lower rate compared with prior knowledge. Results from fluctuation analysis and transformation cycle experiment suggest that there are no essential recombination barriers between C. jejuni 4031 and C. jejuni NCTC11168 but transformants may not have a competitive advantage over their non-transformed counterparts.
  • Asikainen, Henna (2009)
    Työn tarkoituksena oli pystyttää reaaliaikainen PCR-menetelmä enterohemorraagisten Escherichia coli (EHEC) seroryhmien O26, O55, O91, O111, O113, O145 ja O157 sekä H7-antigeenin ja virulenssigeenien stx1, stx2 ja hlyA nopeampaa havaitsemista varten. Työssä testattiin menetelmän soveltuvuutta EHEC-bakteerien havaitsemiseen 45 puhdasviljelmäkannan lisäksi myös seitsemästä sekaviljelmästä, joista yksi oli Nokian vesiepidemian vesinäyte. Puhdasviljelmäkannat ja kuusi muuta sekaviljelmää olivat peräisin sairaaloista vuosien 1996-2007 välisenä aikana lähetetyiltä sekaviljelmämaljoilta. EHEC-bakteerit kuuluvat suolistotulehduksia aiheuttaviin E. coli-bakteereihin. Ne ovat suolistotulehduksia aiheuttavista E. coli-ryhmistä tärkein elintarvikevälitteisten ripulien aiheuttaja Suomessa ja muissa länsimaissa. EHEC-bakteerit leviävät pääasiallisesti elintarvikkeiden ja juomaveden kautta, vaikkakin alkuperäinen kontaminaatio on aina saanut alkunsa ihmisen tai eläimen ulosteesta. EHEC-infektion voi saada jo 10–100 bakteerista ja sen onkin todettu tarttuneen ihmisestä toiseen. Bakteerin tärkein reservuaari on nautakarjan ja muiden märehtijöiden suolistossa. EHEC-infektioita tavataan yleensä n. 10–20 tapausta vuosittain Suomessa. Suomessa, kuin myös maailmanlaajuisesti, yleisin epidemioita aiheuttanut EHEC-kanta on tähän mennessä kuulunut O157:H7-serotyyppiin. Muita tärkeitä epidemioita aiheuttaneita O-seroryhmiä Suomessa ja muualla maailmalla ovat olleet seroryhmät O26, O103, O111 ja O145. EHEC-bakteeri aiheuttaa vesiripulia, mutta potilaat voivat kärsiä myös vatsakivuista ja oksentelusta. Osalla ihmisistä vesiripuli voi muuttua myös veriripuliksi (Hemorragic Colitis, HC). Jotkut voivat olla myös oireettomia kantajia. EHEC-bakteerin aiheuttama ripuli voi kehittyä hemolyyttis ureeminen oireyhtymä (haemoltyic uremic syndrome, HUS- jälkitaudiksi, jonka oireina ovat akuutit munuaisvaurioit, mikroangiopaattinen hemolyyttinen anemia ja trombosytopenia. Aikuisilla voi esiintyä myös HUS:n tromboottiseksi trombosytopeeniseksi purppuraksi (trombotic trombocytopenic purpura, TTP) kutsuttua muotoa. HUS:n riskiryhmään kuuluvat alle viisivuotiaat lapset ja vanhukset. EHEC-bakteerin aiheuttama tauti luokitellaan Suomessa yleisvaarallisiin tartuntatauteihin. EHEC-bakteerin virulenssitekijöihin lukeutuu shigatoksiinin tuottogeenien (stx1- ja stx2-geenit) lisäksi myös Enterohemolysiinin tuottogeeni (hly-geeni) ja LEE (Locus of Enterocyte Effacement)-patogeenisuus saareke, joka sisältää mm. tir- ja eae-geenit, jotka määräävät proteiineja, joiden välityksellä EHEC-bakteeri kiinnittyy suolen epiteeliin. Shigatoksiineja pidetään oireiden pääasiallisena aiheuttajana. Tässä työssä testattu reaaliaikainen PCR-menetelmä (Real-Time PCR) on uusimpia EHEC-bakteerin tunnistamiseen käytetyistä menetelmistä. Menetelmä hyödyntää fluoresoivia koettimia, jotka toimivat fluoresenssi resonanssilla eli energian siirtymisellä (Fluorescense Resonance Energy Transfer, FRET) kahden fluoresoivan leiman kesken. Menetelmä mahdollistaa PCR-tuotteen analysoimisen monistamisen yhteydessä ja vähentää analysoimisen aikana syntyvän kontaminaatioriskin lisäksi myös turvallisuusriskiä, kun tulosten visualisoinnissa ei tarvitse käyttää karsinogeenista Etidiumbromidia (EtBr). Tässä työssä menetelmällä saadut tulokset olivat toistettavia ja vastasivat aiemmin monialukkeisella PCRmenetelmällä ja agglutinaatiotekniikalla saatuja tuloksia. Sekaviljelmiä testatessa reaaliaikaisen PCR-menetelmän kanssa samanaikaisesti rinnakkain tehty monialukkeinen PCR-menetelmä antoi myös yhtenevät tulokset. Reaaliaikainen PCR-menetelmä osoittautui monialukkeista PCR-menetelmää ja agglutinaatiotekniikkaa huomattavasti nopeammaksi menetelmäksi, joka mahdollistaa nopeamman diagnoosin, joka on tärkeää HUS-jälkitautia sairastavien potilaiden hoidon kannalta.
  • Lee, Hyejeong (2014)
    Quantitative reverse transcription PCR (RT-qPCR) assay is widely used for the detection of RNA viruses in environmental water samples. However, a major limitation of using RT-qPCR assay to quantify virus titers is its inability to discriminate between infectious and non-infectious viruses, resulting in overestimation of viral infectivity. Thus, the aim of this study was to develop a reliable molecular method for rotavirus detection with information on viral infectivity, and which may contribute to the development of molecular detection methods for correct estimation of infectivity of non-cultivable viruses. In experimental work, the potential of using propidium monoazide (PMA) or RNase treatment prior to RT-qPCR assay was evaluated to measure the infectivity of human rotavirus. In brief, original human rotavirus (HRV) stock was produced by propagating viruses in MA-104 cells. The virus stocks (including HRV stock A and B) were thermally treated at 80 °C at different time points. The virus titer was measured by (1) cell culture-based infectivity assay, (2) RT-qPCR assay, and (3) RT-qPCR assay with PMA or RNase pretreatment. The result of cell culture-based infectivity assay showed that heat exposure for 5 min at 80 °C was sufficient to inactivate the HRV, while RT-qPCR assay alone overestimated the viral infectivity. The results of RT-qPCR assay with pre-treatments showed that, for thermally-inactivated HRV stock A, similar level of false-positive results was reduced with PMA treatment regardless of inactivation time (ranges from 1.04 to 1.18 log10 PCR-units), while higher reduction level was observed with RNase treatment (ranges from 2.64 to 2.89 log10 PCR-units). On the other hand, the effects of both pre-treatments on thermally-inactivated HRV stock B were negligible. In conclusion, both PMA and RNase pre-treatments eliminated the false-positive results of RT-qPCR assay to some extent in defined conditions, while the discrepancy between the infectivity assay and RT-qPCR assay even with PMA or RNase treatment was observed. In order to confirm the potential of using RT-qPCR assay combined with pre-treatments to measure the infectivity of rotavirus, further studies on optimization of PMA and RNase treatments and production of optimal virus stock would be necessary.
  • Ruusulehto, Liisa (2018)
    Diverse ecological interactions between populations have a considerable impact on the composition and evolution of microbial communities. Microbial evolution can happen in such short timescales that the evolutionary and coevolutionary events occurring in the populations, in turn, affect the ecological interactions in the communities. Predation and competition are the two most important factors affecting the composition and evolution of microbial communities, and usually they are strongly dependent on each other. The aim of this work was to study the effects of a predatory ciliate, Tetrahymena thermophila, on the composition and activity of a synthetic bacterial community, and to compare the differences between the effects of an ancestral strain and a coevolved strain that had previously coevolved with Pseudomonas fluorescens SBW25. Another aim of this study was to examine whether the rapidly evolving P. fluorescens bacterial strain has any definitive impact on the composition of the synthetic multi-strain bacterial community, and what are the differences between the effects of ancestral, evolved and coevolved populations of the bacterium. The effects of the different treatments were studied by measuring bacterial and ciliate population densities and community activity, and with 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis of different timepoints in the experiment. Predation had a significant effect on community composition, activity and bacterial population densities. The effect of the coevolved predator on the community composition was weaker than the effect of the ancestral predator, which was most likely caused by the smaller population density of the coevolved predator. Possibly because of this, there was no significant difference in community activity, diversity or bacterial population densities between the predator treatments. Thus, for this part, the results were consistent. P. fluorescens had a small effect on the community composition, and the difference in the evolutionary history of the P. fluorescens populations had a significant effect on the metabolic activity of the community. The experimental results indicated that prior coevolution between P. fluorescens and T. thermophila can have possible notable effects on the composition and metabolic activity of a bacterial community. The impact of earlier evolutionary adaptation or possible coevolution between community parties should be taken into consideration when studying ecological interactions and evolutionary changes in microbial communities.
  • Mentula, Silja (1998)
    S. milleri -ryhmän bakteerit ovat osa ihmisen suun, nielun, suoliston ja genitaalialueen normaaliflooran bakteeristoa. Kommensaalien lisäksi ryhmään kuuluu myös merkittäviä patogeenejä, jotka esiintyvät varsin runsaina löydöksinä monenlaisissa märkivissä infektioissa. Ryhmään kuuluu kolme lajia: S. anginosus, S. constellatus ja S. intermedius. Lajit ovat varsin samankaltaisia ja raportoidaankin usein vain ryhmänimellä. Lajit ovat kuitenkin erotettavissa, sillä ne eroavat toisistaan tuottamiensa entsyymien suhteen ja esiintyvyydessään kehon eri osissa. Työn tarkoituksena oli tunnistaa erityyppisistä kliinisistä infektioista otetuista näytteistä eristettyjä S. milleri -ryhmään luokiteltuja kantoja lajitasolle ja selvittää niiden esiintymisyleisyyttä näissä infektioissa. Näytteenottopaikat jaettiin viiteen ryhmään: naisten urogenitaalialue (15 kantaa), miesten urogenitaalialue (8 kantaa), oraaliset (28 kantaa), umpisuoli (34 kantaa) ja "muut" (12 kantaa). Lajitunnistuksen lisäksi selvitettiin kantojen hemolyyttisyys ja mahdollinen Lancefield-seroryhmä (A, C, F, G). Lajien erottelu perustuu eroihin bakteerien kyvyissä hajottaa tiettyjä substraatteja (entsyymiprofilointi), hemolyyttisyys määritettiin verimaljalla ja seroryhmitys tehtiin kaupallisella vasta-aine-sakkautumistestillä (Streptex latex Z1- 50). Työssä testattiin käytössä olevia ja kehiteltiin uusia, lähinnä ennalta muodostuneiden entsyymien tunnistamiseen perustuvia erottelumenetelmiä. Vertailtavina oli kolme entsyymiprofiliontimenetelmää, joista yksi on fluorogeeninen (4-Metyyli-umbelliferyyli-subtraatit) ja kaksi kromogeenistä (Weetabs ja RoscoDiagnostic tablets). Kannoilta määritettiin seuraavat aktiivisuudet: ?-fukosidaasi, (?-glukosidaasi, glukosidaasi, ?-galaktosidaaasi, ?-N-asetyyli-galaktosaminidaasi, ?-N-asetyyli-glukosaminidaasi, sialidaasi ja hyaluronidaasi. Työhön sisältyy myös erilaisten kasvatusalustojen sekä pH:n vaikutusten arviointia bakteerienentsyymiaktiivisuuksiin ja testituloksiin. Lisäksi työssä testattiin kromatografisensoluseinärasvahappoanalyysin soveltuvuutta lajien erotteluun. Menetelmiä tarkasteltiin herkkyyden sekäkäytännön suorittamisen ja aiheutuvien kustannusten kannalta. Asetetut tavoitteet saavutettiin. Kaikki käytetyt menetelmät osoittautuivat toimiviksi. Entsyymitestien tuloksetkorreloivat keskenään ja kirjallisuuden kanssa hyvin. Kannat karakterisoitiin, tunnistettiin lajitasolle ja lajiensiintyvyyttä kehon eri osissa voitiin vertailla. Mikään entsyymitesti ei osoittautunut ylivoimaisesti parhaaksi tai huonoimmaksi, vaikkakin yksittäistensubstraattien kohdalla eri testien herkkyydet vaihtelivatkin huomattavasti. Rasvahappoanalyysi ei erotellutkantoja toivotulla tavalla, joten sen käytöstä luovuttiin työn melko varhaisessa vaiheessa. Tutkituista 97 S. milleri -kannasta tunnistettiin 58 S. anginosus-kantaa, 29 S. constellatus-kantaa ja 10 S.ntermedius-kantaa. Eri lajit noudattivat entsyymiprofiiliaan muutamaa poikkeusta lukuunottamatta hyvinkinsäännöllisesti. Lajien sisäinen variaatio hemolyysiominaisuuksissa oli merkittävää ja S. inilleri -ryhmän erilajien sekä hemolyysisltään ja seroryhmältään erilaisten kantojen esiintyvyydessä kehon eri osissa havaittiinselkeitä eroja.
  • Martikainen, Outi (2011)
    Diarrheagenic Escherichia coli (DEC) can cause diarrheal disease in humans. Like commensal E. coli, DEC are present in the human and mammalian, especially ruminant, and avian gut. They can also be present in soil and water environments. The food of animal origin can act as a transmission vehicle to infect humans. Infection may also be gained by drinking water contaminated by animal or human feces. DEC can be devided into five pathogroups based on their virulence traits: enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC), enterohaemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC), enteroinvasive E. coli (EIEC) and enteroaggregative E. coli (EAEC). EPEC typically causes children’s diarrhea in developing countries. ETEC is a typical cause for tourist’s diarrhea and infantil diarrhoea in developing countries. EHEC causes bloody or non-bloody diarrhea that might lead to kidney dysfunction called hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS) especially in young children. EIEC causes Shigella-like diarrhea which can be bloody. EAEC is mainly associated with prolonged diarrhea. This study was conducted to find out the prevalence of diarrheagenic E. coli in humans and food in Burkina Faso, on which there was no previous knowledge. Fecal samples were collected from children under five years of age suffering from diarrhea in two villages, Boromo and Gourcy, and in the capital Ouagadougou (110 samples). Raw meat samples (chicken, beef, mutton and bovine intestines used for human consumption) were collected from open markets in Ouagadougou (120 samples). Primary mixed bacterial cultures obtained from the samples were studied using multiplex PCR-method, which detects the virulence genes of the five pathogroups. In addition, 20 EHEC strains were isolated from meat samples using colony hybridization based on the detection of Shiga toxin gene stx and PCR-screening, and were characterized to reveal the possible virulence properties. The study demonstrated that DEC-infections in small children are common in Burkina Faso. Of the studied fecal samples, 59 % were positive for DEC. The most prevalent pathogroups were EAEC (32 %), ETEC (31 %) and EPEC (20 %). EIEC (2 %) and EHEC (1 %) were found only in a few samples. Mixed infections with more than one pathogroup were common (24 %). The difference in DEC prevalence between the different sampling locations was statistically significant. There were more DEC-infections in Gourcy than in Ouagadougou and Boromo. The study also showed that DEC occur commonly in raw meats sold at open markets in Ouagadougou. Of the studied meat samples, 43 % were positive for DEC. The most prevalent were EHEC (28 %), EPEC (20 %), ETEC (8 %) and EAEC (5 %). EIEC was not detected. Mixed contaminations with more than one pathogroup were relatively common (17 %) in meat. There was no statistical significance in DEC-prevalence between the different meats. When prevalence was considered by each pathogroup, EHEC was absent in chicken and the difference was statistically significant when compared to the other meats. The 20 EHEC strains isolated from the meat samples were grouped into 14 serotypes, some of which have previously been isolated from humans suffering from diarrheal disease and HUS. All the strains were positive for stx1 and half of them also for stx2, which is considered to be the more virulent form of Shiga toxin. Two EHEC strains were also positive for an ETEC-related gene of heat-stable enterotoxin Ia. Hence, the two strains were a mixture of two pathogroups and an evidence of gene transfer between different pathogroups. The youngest children do not consume meat but meat can be thought to represent a sample from their living environment, because food for children might be prepared in the same environment where raw meat products are handled. Thus contaminated meat can be a source of DEC-infections in little children.
  • Renner, Niklas (2017)
    Cyanobacteria produce several secondary metabolites which can be assorted into larger groups like peptides, polyketides and alkaloids based on their structure and synthesis pathways. Though the importance of these compounds to the cyanobacteria is under discussion, some compounds are detected to express bioactivity towards the cells of other organisms. The most known of these compounds are probably toxins like microcystins and saxitoxins which pose a health risk to humans and animals. However, some compounds, when modified, might have a positive affect towards human health. These compounds could for example inhibit the growth of pathogens in human body or harm cancer cells. Therefore, cyanobacteria have risen among the most promising organisms when it comes to finding new drug leads. Unfortunately only a few cyanobacteria strains seem to produce compounds with high medical potential and these compounds of interest are among the hundreds of others metabolites produced by the strain. Therefore, efficient screening and purification methods are needed. This study aimed to isolate antileukemic fractions from cyanobacteria strains, which had expressed cytotoxic activity in previous studies. The compounds of interest would be identified and purified out of these fractions. Fractions were made using solid phase extraction and high performance liquid chromatography. The antileukemic activity of the fractions were tested using human leukemia patient-derived cell line. Using described methods we found apparently cytotoxic compounds resembling carotenoids from one of the strains. We also performed screening based on plate diffusion. The tests were done in order to determine whether the compounds of cyanobacteria strains would be able to cause hemolysis or prevent growth of different microbes. One of the strains tested seemed to express α-hemolytic activity.
  • Laine, Miia (2015)
    Salmonella- ja kampylobakteerit ovat maailmanlaajuisesti yleisimpiä elintarvikevälitteisiä patogeenejä sekä gastroenteriitin aiheuttajia ja niitä esiintyy yleisesti siipikarjassa. Lukuisissa tutkimuksissa on selvitetty näiden bakteereiden esiintyvyyttä ja siirtymisteitä elintarvikeketjussa ja sen perusteella kehitetty toimenpiteitä niiden kontrolloimiseksi. Tässä työssä tutkittiin kampylobakteereiden ja salmonellan esiintymistä 302 riistalinnun ulostenäytteessä (102 fasaanin, 70 sinisorsan, 30 tavin ja 100 sepelkyyhkyn) fenotyyppiin (ilmiasuun) sekä genotyyppiin (perimään) perustuvilla menetelmillä. Fenotyyppisiä menetelmiä olivat bakteereiden rikastus ja viljely sekä biokemialliset testit ja mikrobilääkeherkkyys, genotyyppisiä taas reaaliaikainen PCR sekä pulssikenttägeelielektroforeesi (PFGE). Tutkimuksessa arvioitiin kaikkiaan kahdeksan alukeparin ja kahden koettimen toimivuutta bakteereiden tunnistamisessa näytteestä eristetystä DNA:sta reaaliaikaisella PCR –menetelmällä pohjautuen sekä SYBR Green- että TaqMan –tekniikkaan. SYBR Green –tekniikkaan perustuvassa menetelmässä kampylobakteereiden tunnistukseen käytettiin viittä ja salmonellalle kolmea alukeparia, ja näillä alukkeilla saadut positiiviset näytteet varmistettiin sekä salmonellan että kampylobakteereiden suhteen kahteen TaqMan –koettimeen ja –alukepariin perustuvalla menetelmällä. Lopuksi reaaliaikaisen PCR:n eri ajo-olosuhteiden sekä käytettyjen reagenssien välisiä eroja verrattiin määrittämällä reaktioiden monistumistehokkuus standardisuorien avulla. Lisäksi osa bakteereista karakterisoitiin PFGE:llä ja biokemiallisilla testeillä sekä määritettiin niiden mikrobilääkeherkkyys. Työ tehtiin Helsingin yliopiston eläinlääketieteellisen tiedekunnan elintarvikehygienian ja ympäristöterveyden osastolla. Kaikki tutkitut ulostenäytteet olivat peräisin tarhalla kasvatettavista riistalinnuista, joita esiintyy Suomessa myös luonnonvaraisina. Reaaliaikaisen PCR:n tulosten perusteella kampylobakteereita esiintyi eniten sorsalintujen ulostenäytteissä (näytteistä lähes 80 % oli 16S rRNA:n monistumisen perusteella SYBR Green –tekniikalla positiivisia), kun taas sepelkyyhkyissä (25 % näytteistä oli positiivisia) ja fasaaneissa (lähes 20 % näytteistä oli positiivisia) paljon vähemmän. Salmonellan suhteen kaikki näytteet olivat negatiivisia. TaqMan – tekniikkaan perustuva reaaliaikainen PCR – menetelmä osoittautui SYBR Green – menetelmää luotettavammaksi bakteereiden tunnistuksen suhteen, koska osa jälkimmäisellä menetelmällä testatuista positiivisista näytteistä oli TaqMan – menetelmällä negatiivisia. Standardisuorien perusteella reaktioiden tehokkuuksien välillä ei ollut merkittävää eroa. Pulssikenttägeelielektroforeesin tuloksena SmaI – restriktioentsyymillä saatiin tyypitettyä 18 kampylobakteerikantaa, jotka kuuluivat kaikki samaan genotyyppiin.
  • Pokki, Laura (2015)
    This survey was a part of co-operational project between the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, EVIRA (The Finnish food safety authority) and The Faculty of Veterinary Medicine at the University of Helsinki. The Project was focused on cattle interdigital phlegmon epidemiology and bacterial etiology. The aim of this thesis was to characterize microbiota in the interdigital area of cattle as well as to determine if the found microorganisms of a sick animals hoof can also be found on healthy animal’s interdigital area. There was also an opportunity to test MALDI –TOF MS suitability for clinical animal microbiology. The experimental part of this study was carried out in the laboratory between 7.10.2013 – 25.5.2014. Plated swab samples were collected from five different farmhouses with a total of 28 healthy animals and 3 suffering from foot rot. For further analysis of isolated samples were used to identify and describe the microbiological tests such as morphology, catalase-test, Gram staining and special-potency antibiotic discs. Part of the isolated bacterial strains chosen was a universal 16S-PCR and amplification of the partial 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The obtained data was compared with MALDI-TOF-Mass spectrometry. Healthy hooves skin bacteria was diverse, and no individual type of species dominated growth. The vast majority of the bacteria were represented by gram-positive facultative anaerobic species. Certain gram negative species such as Fusobacterium necrophorum and Porphyromonas levii dominated growth on primary plates. In addition, these species was found only on samples of Interdigital phlegmon. This result suggests that a healthy hoof skin is not the major source of pathogenic bacterial species and that prevalence of these bacterial species is due to other factors. MALDI-TOF-MS identified the best known pathogens or pathogenic types as F. necrophorum along with P. levii and general types of Bacteroides. Similarly, facultative anaerobes were identified by gram-positive species, including Streptococcus, Staphylococcus and Trueperella pyogenes. In conclusion the findings were in line with other studies, and the species diversity varied considerably in the group of healthy animals. Infected animals had a significantly different profile with pathogenic groups and plates growing severe dominance within these groups. Isolated bacterial samples were used to identify and describe the traditional clinical microbiology studies such as colony and cell morphology examination, Catalase and special-potency antibiotic discs. The results from MALDI-TOF-MS provided useful information about the methodology data for the bacterial library. It is also cost-effective to use.
  • Viitamäki, Sirja (2019)
    Soil microbial communities have a critical role in the biogeochemical processes on Earth, but their response to the ongoing climate change is poorly understood. Arctic permafrost harbors approximately 50% of Earth’s below ground carbon, and warmer climate leads to increased rate of microbial decomposition of soil organic matter in polar regions. Without a comprehensive understanding of the soil microbial ecology, the overall impact of climate change to nutrient cycles and greenhouse gas emissions is difficult to predict. My aim was to improve the knowledge of active microbes and their energy sources in subarctic soil. I studied the activity and functions of soil microbial communities by applying metatranscriptomics to soils along a natural climate gradient in subarctic Kilpisjärvi, northwestern Finland. The gradient represents the possible soil conditions, that microbial communities live in as the climate changes. Additionally, I studied the relationship of microbial activity and various environmental factors, including pH and soil organic matter. Results of the thesis showed that the active microbial communities in subarctic soils are diverse taxonomically and by their energy metabolism, and that pH, soil organic matter content and moisture are the main drivers of soil microbial activity and functions.
  • Palomäki, Anne (2019)
    In nutrient poor boreal peatlands, a significant proportion of photosynthesis-derived carbon of mycorrhizal plants is allocated to their fungal symbionts in exchange for nutrients. The soil carbon cycle is intertwined and affected by inputs of e.g. nitrogen and sulfur, whose amounts both in the soil and atmosphere have increased since the Industrial Revolution. In addition, as stated in the recent Global Warming of 1.5 °C -report (IPCC 2018) global warming is likely to reach 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels before 2052. In this study, data from ericoid mycorrhizal fungi (ErMF) abundance, enzyme activities and the fungal taxa associated with them under increased warming and nutrient depositions were connected. This thesis is part of the Nitro-Erica -project of Natural Resources Institute Finland (LUKE) and it has been funded by the Academy of Finland (SA286731). Root fragments of Vaccinium oxycoccos L. and Andromeda polifolia L. were observed under a light microscope to determine the abundance of all root associated fungi, ErMF and dark septate endophytes (DSE). Fluorometric and photometric assays were used to study the ability of the fungi to degrade organic material and scavenge nutrients. Finally, direct PCR and Sanger sequencing were used to learn the dominant fungal taxa in the roots. A decrease in the abundance of ErMF and DSE was observed, indicating the possibility of a reduction in the carbon sink potential of peatlands through a decrease in the number of fungi. An increase in acid phosphatase activity under nitrogen deposition was observed in the two plants, which was expected as boreal peatlands are often nitrogen limited. In contrast, sulfur deposition suppressed the activity of all carbon acquiring enzymes which we concluded was likely to be the result of the sulfur inhibiting the growth of two parasitic fungi that greatly contributed to the overall high activity of carbon acquiring enzymes. More research is needed to gain a comprehensive understanding of the fungal abundance, communities and their functioning in peatlands under the changing environmental conditions.
  • Kiheri, Heikki (2016)
    This thesis discusses the concept of mycorrhization in the roots of land plants, their reliance on symbiotic fungi and the diversity of these relationships. Specifically, the focus of this study is the mycorrhization of ericaceous plants in boreal forest ecosystems and the role this plays in aiding host survival of harsh conditions. This study presents the first comparison of the colonization patterns of both fungal and bacterial consortia in the roots and mycospheres of different boreal forest ericoid species. Experimentally, the mycorrhizal fungal and bacterial communities of roots of the Ericaceous species Vaccinium myrtillus, Vaccinium vitis-idaea, and Calluna vulgaris were characterized and quantified. To simulate natural conditions, the host species were grown in forest soil microcosms under controlled conditions with mycorrhization occurring naturally. The morphology and intensity of root colonization by ericoid mycorrhizal fungi was determined through light microscopy. Quantification of fungal and bacterial abundances was performed using quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction for the roots and soil of each species. Microscopic analysis revealed differences in both morphology and intensity of ericoid mycorrhization for the species studied. The fungal and bacterial abundances for the roots of each host species were found to be significantly different, while the soil abundances of each species showed considerable variation and were not found to be significantly different. An intriguing connection between the fungal and bacterial abundances colonizing the root systems of the different plant species was indicated by comparison. These findings begin to clarify the unique relationships each ericoid species has with the highly diverse fungi and bacteria of their environment. Further refinement of techniques and more in depth analyses are suggested for confirming the differences indicated by these results. The ecological significance of such work is also discussed in regards to fully understanding forest ecosystems as well as the potential for novel discoveries that may benefit many aspects of humanity.
  • Pakola, Ida (2017)
    Dysbiosis is a condition where gut microbiota’s diversity and stability are decreased and the composition of bacterial community is altered as compared to healthy microbiota. Dysbiosis can cause serious harm to host’s immune system and it is linked to inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). In IBD, the immune system is disturbed and there is a constant inflammation of the gut. Currently IBD is treated by antibiotics and immunomodulators, but it could be preferable to use treatments which aim to restore a healthy microbiota, because dysbiosis has been found to play role in maintaining the continuous inflammation in gut. One potential treatment to restore the healthy microbiota is bacterial therapy. Anti-inflammatory bacterial species of healthy gut could be potential components of bacterial therapy product for IBD-targeted drug. The aim of this study was to isolate spore-forming anti-inflammatory bacteria from fecal material that had been used previously in fecal microbiota transplantation. The aim was to isolate intestinal bacteria, which could be used as a treatment for IBD in the future. Anti-inflammatory properties of spore-formers were an object of interest because the aim was to study could bacterial spores be used in IBD-targeted bacterial therapy. For isolating bacterial spores from the sample, two selection methods were used, ethanol-treatment and heat shock. Treated samples were cultivated on six different media. Bacterial isolates were picked from the plates followed by anti-inflammatory screening to select potentially anti-inflammatory isolates. In anti-inflammatory screening the effect of an isolate on lipopolysaccharide induced IL-8-production of HT-29-cell line was measured. Potentially anti-inflammatory isolates were purified to pure cultures followed by sequencing of their 16S rRNA gene (rDNA). Anti-inflammatory effect of pure cultures on HT-29-cells were tested again with three parallel reactions. Selection methods didn’t work out as well as expected. Based on the 16S rDNA sequences of bacterial populations collected from different media, two treatments managed to select a good portion of Firmicutes, but none of the potentially anti-inflammatory pure culture isolates were spore-formers. According to the 16S rDNA sequences most of the purified strains belonged to the genera Staphylococcus or Enterococcus. Only a small proportion of the potentially anti-inflammatory isolates were confirmed as anti-inflammatory. In this study, six anti-inflammatory Enterococcus faecalis -strains were isolated and purified. In the future, these strains need to be studied further to assess their potential in bacteriotherapeutic applications and clinical use. The methods and results of this study can be used to further optimize the procedures to isolate various intestinal bacteria.
  • Pitkänen, Juha-Matti (2014)
    Vedenalaisen arkeologisen puun hajoaminen eroaa merkittävästi maanpäällisestä puusta. Vähähappiset tai hapettomat olosuhteet ja suolapitoisuus inhiboivat kantasienten kaltaisten tehokkaiden puunhajottajien kasvua vedenalaisissa ympäristöissä. Tällöin merkittävimmiksi puunhajottajiksi nousevat bakteerit. Työssä kartoitettiin Vrouw Maria hylyn kannelta nostetun tammipuupalan mikrobidiversiteettiä prokaryoottien osalta. Tutkimuksessa monistettiin prokaryoottien 16S rDNA:ta nested-PCR-menetelmällä kolmesta eri puun syvyydestä. Sekvensoinnin ja fylogeneettisten analyysien avulla selvitettiin puusta monistettujen 16S rDNA-geenien alkuperä, ja pyrittiin kirjallisuuden avulla selvittämään kyseessä olevien organismien funktioita. Vedenalaisen arkeologisen puun mikrobidiversiteetin määrittäminen puun syvyysgradientin mukaan oli uusi lähtökohta aiempiin tutkimuksiin verrattaessa. Tässä työssä pystyttiin osoittamaan mikrobidiversiteetin kapeneminen ja yhteisöjen jäsenten metabolisten ominaisuuksien muutos syvemmälle puussa mentäessä. Puun pintakerroksesta löydettiin odotetusti lähinnä raudan ja rikin kiertoihin osallistuvia ja hajonnutta puumateriaalia käyttäviä bakteereita. Syvemmälle puussa mentäessä alkoi löydettyjen bakteerien lähisukulaisilta nousta esiin kykyjä hajottaa erilaisia kompleksisempia hiilivetyjä. Läheltä tutkitun puupalan ydintä löydettiin asidobakteereihin kuuluva bakteeri, jonka lähimmät sukulaiset osoittautuivat sellulolyyttisiksi. Arkkeja ei löydetty yhdestäkään tutkitusta syvyydestä. Tutkimuksessa saatujen tulosten perusteella kyseinen tammipuupala on altistunut melkein läpikotaisin selluloosaa hajottavien bakteerien toiminnalle, vaikka silmämääräisesti tarkasteltuna puun kunto syvemmissä kerroksissa vaikutti hyvältä. Näitä tuloksia ei kuitenkaan voida yleistää koko hylyn kattaviksi, sillä olosuhteet hylyn kannen ja pohjasedimentin läheisyydessä olevien rungon osien välillä voivat erota suuresti.
  • Wang, Hao (2008)
    Anabaena is a common member of the phytoplankton in lakes, reservoirs and ponds throughout the world. This is a filamentous, nitrogen-fixing cyanobacterial genus and is frequently present in the lakes of Finland. Anabaena sp. strain 90 was isolated from Lake Vesijärvi and produces microcystins, anabaenopeptilides and anabaenopeptins. A whole genome shotgun sequencing project was undertaken to obtain the complete genome of this organism in order to better understand the physiology and environmental impact of toxic cyanobacteria. This work describes the genome assembly and finishing, the genome structure, and the results of intensive computational analysis of the Anabaena sp. strain 90 genome. Altogether 119,316 sequence reads were generated from 3 genomic libraries with 2, 6 and 40 kb inserts from high throughput Sanger sequencing. The software package Phred/Phrap/Consed was used for whole genome assembly and finishing. A combinatorial PCR method was used to establish relationships between remaining contigs after thorough scaffolding and gap-filling. The final assembly results show that there is a single 4.3 Mb circular chromosome and 4 circular plasmids with sizes of 820, 80, 56 and 20 kb respectively. Together, these 4 plasmids comprise nearly one-fifth of the total genome. Genomic variations in the form of 79 single nucleotide polymorphisms and 3 sequence indels were identified from the assembly results. Sequence analysis revealed that 7.5 percent of the Anabaena sp. strain 90 genome consists of repetitive DNA elements. The genome sequence of Anabaena sp. strain 90 provides a more solid basis for further studies of bioactive compound production, photosynthesis, nitrogen fixation and akinete formation in cyanobacteria.
  • Seittenranta-Vekkeli, Sofia (2016)
    Patogeeninen Yersinia enterocolitica aiheuttaa yersinioosiksi kutsuttua suolistoinfektiota ja se voi aiheuttaa myös pitkäaikaisia jälkitauteja. Yersinia on kolmanneksi yleisin elintarvikevälitteinen bakteerizoonoosi Euroopassa kampylobakteerin ja salmonellan jälkeen. Suomessa yersiniatartuntoja raportoidaan vuosittain 500–700 ja esiintyvyys on Euroopan tasolla väkilukuun suhteutetuna korkea. Tartunnat ovat yleensä yksittäisiä, epidemioita esiintyy harvoin. Y. enterocolitica on gramnegatiivinen fakultatiivisesti anaerobi kokkoidi sauvabakteeri. Se on psykrotrofinen eli kykenee lisääntymään myös jääkaappilämpötilassa. Yersinian tärkeimpänä tartuntalähteenä pidetään yleisesti raakaa tai huonosti kypsennettyä sianlihaa, johon se päätyy taudinaiheuttajamikrobia kantavista oireettomista sioista teurastusprosessin aikana. Jopa kahdella kolmasosalla sioista patogeeninen Y. enterocolitica -bakteeri on saatu eristettyä teurastamolla otetuista nielurisanäytteistä. Bakteeria on havaittu erittyvän sian ulosteeseen noin joka kymmenellä sialla vaihtelevasti riippuen ainakin sian kasvuvaiheesta. Pääosa sioista eristetyistä patogeenisistä Y. enterocolitica kannoista kuuluu Suomessa biotyyppiin 4 ja serotyyppiin O:3. Tutkimuksessa tutkittiin 38 eri tilalta yhteensä 394 sikaa, jotka jakautuivat 10 teuraskuljetukseen. Sioista kerättiin ulostenäytteet ennen kuljetusta tiloilla, välittömästi kuljetuksen jälkeen ja teurastamolla lepoajan jälkeen ennen teurastusta. Yhteensä kerättiin 1139 näytettä, joista 206 näytteestä eristettiin Y. enterocolitica 4/O:3 kanta. Kantojen genotyypit määritettiin MLVA (multiple-locus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis) menetelmällä. Aiemmissa tutkimuksissa on havaittu, että eri tiloilta tulevien sikojen yersiniakannat eroavat toisistaan niiden MLVA-profiilien perusteella ja menetelmää on pidetty soveltuvana myös Yersinia enterocolitica epidemioiden tutkimiseen. Tutkimuksessa havaittiin muutoksia yksittäisten sikojen yersinian erityksessä. Kuljetuksen jälkeen havaittiin yersinian tilastollisesti merkitsevä korkeampi esiintyvyys sian ulosteessa verrattuna tiloilla ja teurastamolla lepoajan jälkeen otettuihin näytteisiin. Samoin kuljetuksen jälkeen havaittiin enemmän erilaisia MLVA-profiileiltaan eroavia yersinia-kantoja, joita ei tavattu tiloilla otetuissa näytteissä. Teurastamolla lepoajan jälkeen havaittiin muutoksia yksittäisten sikojen erittämissä yersiniakannoissa ja myös täysin uusia kantoja, joita ei havaittu tiloilla eikä kuljetuksen jälkeen otetuissa näytteissä. Kokonaisuudessaan havaittiin yhteensä 64 ainakin yhden toistojakson erolla yhdessä lokuksessa toisistaan eroavaa MLVA-profiilia. Joidenkin muutosten havaittiin liittyvän samassa kuljetuksissa olleisiin toisten tilojen sikoihin. Tulosten perusteella yersinian tarttumista teuraskuljetusten aikana toisten saman kuljetuksen tilojen sioista toisiin voidaan pitää mahdollisena. Tartunta voi olla myös peräisin esimerkiksi yersinialla saastuneesta ympäristöstä kuljetusautossa tai teurastamon navetassa. Tutkimuksessa ei havaittu merkitystä kuljetuksen pituudella yersinian erittymisessä ulosteeseen. Lepoajan pituuden vaikutuksessa yersinian esiintymiseen ilmeni tarve tarkemmalle tutkimukselle. Menetelmän osalta on esitetty, että MLVA-profiililtaan yhden kopioluvun ero yhdessä tai tai kahdessa lokuksessa voidaan tulkita kantojen olevan samaa alkuperää. Jatkotutkimuksen tarve paitsi menetelmän tulkintarajojen kehittämiseksi myös havaintojen vahvistamiseksi ja selittämiseksi nousi esille.