Browsing by discipline "Kasvintuotantotieteet (agroekologia)"

The aim of this study is to observe what kind of environmental impacts are caused by agriculture and what kind of factors causes them. The study is part of ENREFOOD – project, which views the environmental responsibility of food chain. The data was collected from scientific literature and a group interview, where participants were representing experts from different areas of primary production. The experts were shown a draft of the main environmental impacts and their causes basing on life cycle assessment (LCA) impact classes. The chosen main environmental impacts were focusing on climate change, acidification, eutrophication, biodiversity, toxicity and eco-toxicity and natural resources. The experts were supposed to modify this draft in order to achieve their collective perspective. The results were presented as comparing the draft based on scientific literature and perspectives obtained from the experts. Moreover, the terms used when discussing about the causes of the environmental impacts were analysed applying environmental protection process (EPP) framework, which can be used to illustrate how an environmental change is formed. The perspective of experts did not differ much from the scientific literature based on the draft. The names of the main environmental impact classes were slightly modified and one new class was formed. The new class was called landscape change and recreational factors. The terms relating to the causes used by experts were representing different components in the EPP framework. A Part of the terms were more abstract background factors whereas some related direct on farm level action and its emissions. The amount of the environmental impacts of primary production is huge. By more precisely scoping of the chosen environmental themes can result more manageable overall view. For example, as a good starting point the protection areas applied in the end point modelling of the LCA can be recommended. These areas of protection can be, e.g., human health, biodiversity, natural resources and natural environments. Focusing on these areas of protection separately can reduce the causality problem, which makes environmental impact observation challenging.

Biowaste is composed of food and garden waste, which can easily be utilized for energy and nutrient recovery. A part of biowaste, however, still goes to landfilling, which cause harmful emissions and leaks to the environment. This pro gradu study was carried out as a part of JaloJäte- project in Etelä- Savo and Satakunta. The purpose of JaloJäte- project was to develop models for biowaste exploitation with corporate social responsibility. The aim of my study was to examine if there was any correlation between the amount of biowaste as dry matter and the revenues of the food companies. My study also gives information on which food sector produces most amounts of biowaste amount as dry matter proportional to the revenues as euros of the food company. The utilization of biowaste is also reported in different food sectors. The method was empirical and the study qualitative. I collected the information for the study by phone and by emails from food companies from the years 2007 to the year 2009. I got 102 interviews from food companies. The results indicate that when the revenues as euros of the food companies grew the biowaste amount as dry matter decreased. According to the study agriculture with fishing and food industry sectors produce more biowaste as dry matter per euro than food stores and restaurants. The biowaste utilization varied in different food chain sectors. The most popular biowaste utilization forms were composting, direct field use and feeding animals. Others more marginal biowaste utilization forms were burning and rotting. Unfortunately a part of biowaste still goes into landfilling. This cannot continue for long, because placing biowaste into landfills will be forbidden from start of the year 2016. Hopefully this will change puplic opinion so that biowaste will be considered more as a useful byproduct than as waste. More researche is needed on biowaste utilization, so more effective and economical recycling forms can be develop.

Genetic variation within a population is shaped by the life history traits of the species and the properties of the surrounding ecosystem. It is an important factor in the preservation of populations. According to the emerging field of community genetics, genetic variation within a population of one species may also influence the dynamics and diversity of associated species, extending the conservational relevance of intraspecific genetic diversity. Finnish populations of pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) offer an interesting study system for population genetics. Q. robur grows in south-western Finland at the northern limit of its natural range. Here, its distribution has been shaped by long-term climatic and geological changes as well as by human disturbance, and the current populations are small and strongly fragmented. As Q. robur supports a high diversity of associated species, it is considered to have great ecological and conservational importance. In this thesis, I studied the amount and distribution of genetic diversity within and among three Q. robur populations in south-western Finland using population genetic parameters. I also described the spatial and temporal sub-population structure of one population, on the island of Wattkast. The genetic data was based on 15 nuclear microsatellite loci. Additionally, I examined the effect of the genetic diversity and genotypic identity of the oaks within Wattkast on associated herbivore communities. In the analysis, I used observational data from two years. As predicted for widespread, long-lived tree species, the microsatellite loci showed high levels of diversity within the populations, but also significant differentiation among them. This may be due to fragmentation and to the marginality of the populations. Within the population on Wattkast, I observed patterns of spatial and temporal sub-population differentiation. The characteristics of the site, including the ongoing shift to less extensive land use, suggest that the population is in genetic disequilibrium. As both the genetic distance and the community dissimilarity between pairs of trees increased with increasing geographic distance, I could not conclude the genotypic identity of the host trees to have an effect on the herbivore community structure. However, higher heterozygosity was associated with higher richness and abundance of species. This result supports the notion that intraspecific genetic variation may increase associated species richness. Based on the results of my study, both the life history traits of the species and the historic habitat changes may be observed in the genetic structure of Q. robur populations in Finland. The results also suggest that preservation of genetic variation within the remaining stands may be a factor not only in the preservation of these populations, but also in the conservation of associated species diversity.

Loss of biodiversity in the Finnish agricultural environment has increased during the last decades due to the agricultural intensification. Accurate, efficient and repeatable sampling methods are important to follow the impacts of the measures to enhance biodiversity. This study focuses on the assessment of vegetation structure and species diversity. Vegetation cover is one of the most common measures to assess vegetation biodiversity. Cover data is usually collected by a point intercept method, a line intercept method or by visual estimation in quadrats. Traditional methods have been found to be laborious, time-consuming and subjective, and having poor repeatability. The main objective of this study was to find out if it is possible to improve vegetation surveys with digital photographs and an object-based image analysis. To answer this question, a visual method (VM) was compared with a photographic method (PM). The VM was based on ocular estimation of the total vegetation cover. In the PM, pictures of the top cover were taken vertically downward from 1.5 meters above the ground. Using a software program called Definiens, the photographs were divided into segments, which were then classified into bare ground, litter, monocots and dicots to estimate the covers for each category. The data was collected during the summer 2010 from environmental fallows and set-asides. There was a clear correlation between the cover measures in the VM and the PM, so it can be assumed that the PM is suitable for the assessment of the vegetation cover. However, using only the PM, it is not possible to get a reliable estimate of the vegetation structure or species diversity. It was faster to collect the data in the field with the PM than with the VM. The computer used in this survey was inefficient, thus the image analysis took more time than expected and as a result the PM was in its entirety slower than the VM. The study gave important theoretical and practical information about the photographic method, its strengths and weaknesses. Photographic methods are still under development and further research is needed but they hold promise for the future.

Dung beetles affect ecosystem functioning in agricultural landscapes. Among these beetles several functional groups decompose cattle dung and contribute to recycling its nutrients back to the soil. To-day many Finnish dung beetle species are threatened because of habitat change and fragmentation. Therefore, the impacts of changes in dung beetle community structure on ecosystem functioning needs to be addressed. However, many earlier studies of dung beetle functions have focussed only on small-scale manipulations with possible implications for interpretation of the results on larger scale. The aim of this study was to assess whether large-scale enclosures can be used to manipulate dung beetle communities in Finland. With this new method I wanted to examine how different dung beetle communities affected dung decomposition and nutrient cycling. I also wanted to examine wheth-er grazing pressure affected dung decomposition. I used two types of mesh enclosures to create different communities of Aphodius and Geotrupes species. In small mesh enclosures I added dung beetles manually, while in the large mesh enclosures the smaller Aphodius species could get through the mesh, and Geotrupes were then added manually to some of these enclosures. During the experiment I repeatedly measured the amount of dung beetles inside and outside of the mesh to assess the performance of the enclosures. Within enclosures I created plots that reflected different grazing pressure. In every plot I placed a dung pat which I then weighed six times during the summer. At the end of the experiment I studied the effect of dung beetles on nutri-ent cycling by weighing the biomass of grass. Overall, I found that the large enclosures are usable and work well in Finland. My results from the enclosures with the bigger mesh size showed that Geotrupes are more efficient decomposers of dung than are Aphodius. However, there were no significant differences between Aphodius and Geotrupes in enclosures made of smaller mesh. Thus, different enclosures may have affected the functioning of the dung beetles because I put the beetles to some enclosures and to some they could get through the mesh. Dung decomposition rates changed remarkably between the different grazing pressures. The end weight of pats was lighter in short grass compared to pats in long grass. It is possible that this reflects microhabitat selection by beetles choosing the warmer pats in the short grass. Dung beetle community structure did not affect rates of nutrient recycling, as measured by grass growth. In conclusion, the results of my study suggest that large-scale enclosures can be effectively used to study dung beetle functions in grassland habitats. This study also confirms earlier observations re-garding the significance of different functional groups of dung beetles, and shows that the grazing envi-ronment may have an important impact on the ecosystem functions provided by dung beetles.

Environmental fallows were added as a new voluntary scheme to the agri-environmental programme in Finland in 2009. The scheme aims, among other things, to benefit farmland biodiversity by providing resources for wildlife, and to protect soil from erosion and nutrient leaching. There are four types of environmental fallows: long-term grassland, game crop field, landscape plant field and meadow plant field. In 2010, they covered in total over seven per cent of the field area in Finland. It is important to evaluate the impacts of environmental fallows on environment and develop the scheme, in order to make effective use of resources put into it. The goals of this study were to find out, how important environmental fallows are for biodiversity in agricultural landscapes; what kind of fallows are the most valuable for biodiversity; and how the scheme should be developed. In order to answer these questions, the species richness and composition of vascular plants as well as vegetation structure were surveyed on environmental fallows in Uusimaa and North Ostrobothnia regions in summer 2010. Additionally, the vegetation of environmental fallows was compared with the vegetation of semi-natural meadows and field edges surveyed in another study. Information on the study fields, e. g. parcel history, establishment and management, was collected through a farmer questionnaire. Meadow fields that are sown with low-competitive seed mixtures proved to be the most species rich of the environmental fallow types. On grasslands and meadow fields, the fertility of soil was negatively correlated to the number of species. In species composition the four types of environmental fallows differed from each others as well as from seminatural meadows and field edges. So, the scheme probably enhances diversity in landscape scale. However, there were few rare plant species on environmental fallows. Today, the big majority of the environmental fallows are long-term grasslands, which reduces their positive impact on landscape and biodiversity. The value of environmental fallows both for nature, farmers and society can be enhanced by developing seed mixtures and establishment and management methods as well as offering more advice for the farmers.

Meat bone meal (MBM) contains considerable amount of nutrients (~8% N, ~5% P and ~10 Ca). So it can be a potential organic fertilizer for different crops. Traditionally, the production of mineral N and P fertilizers is unsustainable due to the reliance on fossil fuels in case on N, and limited mineral resource stocks in case of P. Using complementary fertilizers which originate from organic waste materials is gaining interest. On the other hand, organic farms are usually lacking nutrient sources if animals are not kept on farm at the same time. Whether MBM can achieve similar crop yield and quality as the mineral fertilizer was studied. To quantify and qualify MBM use as an N and P fertilizer, two field experiments were done on spring barley and oat in 2000 and 2001. MBM and two types fur animal manure based fertilizers (FAMB and FAMBCF) were compared to mineral fertilizer PellonY3 in three N levels: 60, 90 and 120 kg/ha. MBM and FAMBCF gave the same grain yield as PY3. There was no additional yield increase by increasing N rate from 90 to 120 kg/ha. Four aspects of grain quality, namely 1000grain weigh, test weigh, protein content and protein yield were tested. MBM, FAMBCF and PY3 tended to have similar effect while FAMB had lower effect. Since MBM has a low N/P ratio, when it is applied to meet crop's N demand, P will be at surplus. So using crop rotation and green manure for organic farm and only applying N fertilizer for conventional farm after using MBM is recommended. Adding K in MBM is also necessary when there is a lack of K in soil since MBM had only ~1% K.

In Finland most of the accumulated phosphorus in the agricultural soils is underutilized and at the same time excess phosphorus in soil is susceptible to leaching. Arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM) has the potential to promote plant phosphorus nutrition and growth, and reduce nutrient leaching. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of mycorrhizal symbiosis on plant growth and phosphorus nutrition with three different fertilization management practices. The influence of fertilization management history on field AMF population was also studied. To relate the impact on AM to impacts on other soil quality aspects, the effect of the fertilization rates on crop growth and indicators of soil functioning was evaluated. Long term field experiments established in 1965-66 on three sites in Northern Sweden were utilized. Six years’ rotation either with five grass years and a barley year or barley monoculture was treated with recommended (NPK) and double the recommended (2NPK) rate of mineral fertilisation or with farmyard manure (FYM) with a nutrient amount corresponding to the NPK –treatment for 32 years. The effect of three long term practices on the potential AM contribution to crop phosphorus nutrition and growth was studied in a bioassay. To study the impact of longterm management practices on functional properties of AMF, the sterilised soil from the field plots of NPK and FYM treatments was re- and cross-inoculated (5 v-%) with untreated field soil from each of the same treatments. Crop yields were measured in the field and field soil quality was assessed. Benefit from AM in terms of crop phosphorus nutrition and growth was greatest when manure was applied while there were no differences among the mineral fertiliser treatments. There were no statistically significant differences in the bioassay with re- and cross-inoculations. Grass and barley yields were highest when mineral NPK fertiliser was applied at double the recommended rate. Crop performed equally well or better in terms of yield with manure compared to a corresponding nutrient amount in mineral fertilizers. Manure applications seemed to increase soil carbon and nitrogen contents relative to the recommended amount of NPK, yet keeping the plant-available phosphorus concentration liable for leaching at a similarly low level. Thus, enhanced recycling of nutrients through use of farmyard manure to replace mineral NPK fertilisation favoured reliance on AM in phosphorus nutrition of crops with no trade-off in yields, simultaneously enhancing soil quality.

While a situational analysis by an intervention research program CoS-SIS was being conducted in Lawra and Nadowli regions in Northern Ghana, it was noticed that some farms performed differently: they had more animals, better market off-take or they employed uncommon practices. This raised an interest in this kind of behaviour; what kind of positive deviance exists and what enables it? The objective of this study was to gain understanding on enabling factors for better livelihood outcomes. Study design was a case study where positive deviant (PD) and commercial farmers were contrasted to regular farmers. Qualitative ethnographic methods were used in data collection. Semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions were conducted with the main 12 PD informants. Recorded and transcribed data was analyzed by using thematic content analysis. The findings suggest that subsistence production is most common while commercial farming is rare. Recreational farming exists as well. Only commercials sell animals in sales purposes; commonly animals are sold only in need. The main constraints refer to animal mortality, stealing and lack of water. At the back of the problems there are insufficient service delivery and input dealing as well as farmers’ identity and attitudes towards animal rearing. Positive deviance manifests in larger animal holdings and areas in cultivation. This is attributed to the practices employed: PDs offer supplementary feeding, vaccinate and deworm the animals as well as house them for the night. The practices have been learned through neighbours and relatives as well as through extension and projects. Characteristics to PDs is an off-farm income source which enables investments in agriculture. It can be concluded that PD is about basic practices which have been learned from rather common sources. Creating an enabling environment for small ruminant production requires institutional changes as regards to farmers’ attitudes and service and input delivery. Local practices as responses to constraints would be suitable topics for further research.

As farming has become more intensive, pasturing of traditional rural biotopes has decreased. At the moment all forest pastures are regarded as endangered biotope type in Finland. Currently many species living in them are also endangered. Therefore, restoration and management of traditional biotopes is important. There is special support payment scheme to the land owners for management of traditional rural biotopes which is the most important form encouraging this work. Farmers are the most significant group managing traditional biotopes, so their willingness for management should be increased. Knowledge about nature and farming, attitudes towards them and economic situation of the farm influence farmers’ environmental care. In this study we tried to find out, what problems owners face when managing traditional forest pastures, why do they stop applying for the support and how farmers would like the support scheme to be improved. For a survey we sent 264 questionnaires to land owners who receive the special support for managing traditional rural biotopes in Central Finland, Satakunta and Finland Proper. We received 69 answers. The biggest challenges turn out to be the amount of work, possible sanction, ban of extra fodder, amount of support, ban of fencing traditional biotopes with sown grassland and application process. How much a possible sanction was perceived as a challenge depended on a living region and a challenge of ban of extra fodder and co-fencing depended on a kind of grazing animals. Giving up farm/animals, authority/bureaucracy and too much work were the main reasons to quit management. Most common proposals for improvement were increase of support, moderation of terms of the support, easing of management, simplification of applying papers and increase of guidance. According to this study, the special support and therefore restoration and management of traditional biotopes can become more appealing for farmers if the amount of support would better reflect the amount of work, actions of the authorities would be more consistent, application process for the support would be easier and allowing extra fodder and co-fencing would be considered under special permissions.