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Urban environments are constantly changing and expanding. They grow, evolve, and adapt to society and residents’ needs. Environmental changes have an impact also on urban green such as trees. This is because the increase of building stock and expanding cityscape will target these green spaces. However, the significance of those green spaces is understood as they have a positive impact on the residents’ well-being and health. For example, urban trees are known to improve the air quality and to provide mentally relaxing environments for residents. As this importance is emphasized, changes in the areas must be monitored, which increases the importance of the change detection studies. Change detection is a comparison of two or more datasets from the same area but at different times. Principally, changes have been detected with various remote sensing methods, such as aerial- and satellite images, but as airborne laser scanning technology and multi-temporal laser scanning datasets have become more common, the use of laser scanning data has also increased. The advantage of the laser scanning method is especially in its ability to produce three-dimensional information of the area. Therefore, also vertical properties can be studied. The method’s advantage is its ability to detect changes in urban tree cover as well as in tree height. The aim of this study was to investigate how tree cover and especially canopy height have changed in the Kuninkaantammi area in Helsinki during 2008‒2015, 2015‒2017, 2017‒2020, and 2008‒2020 from multi-temporal laser scanning data. One of the starting points of this study was to find out how airborne laser scanning datasets with different sensors and survey parameters are suitable for change detection. Also, what kind of problems the differences between datasets will raise and how to reduce those problems. The study used laser scanning data from the National Land Survey of Finland and from the city of Helsinki for four different years. The canopy height models were produced of each dataset and changes were calculated as the difference of each canopy height model. The results show that multi-temporal laser scanning data require a lot of manual processing to create datasets comparable. The greatest problems were differences in point density and in classification of the data. The sparse data from the National Land Survey of Finland affected how changes were managed to be studied. Therefore, changes were detected only in general level. In addition, each dataset was classified differently which affected the usability of the classes in the datasets. The problems encountered were reduced by manual work like digitizing or by masking non-vegetation objects. The results showed that the change in the Kuninkaantammi area has been relatively large at the time of the study. Between 2008 and 2015, 12.1% of the tree cover was lost, 9.9% between 2015 and 2017, and 13.2% between 2017 and 2020. In addition, an increase in canopy height was detected. Between 2008 and 2015, 44.2% of the area had greater than 2 m increase in canopy height. Similarly, increase occurred in 11.1% and 3.5% of the area in 2015‒2017 and in 2017‒2020, respectively. Although the changes were observed at a general level, it can be concluded that the used datasets can provide valuable information about the changes in urban green that have taken place in the area.

The Kara Sea is part of the seasonal sea ice zone in the Arctic, where the warming climate is rapidly changing the sea ice regime. The warm Atlantic water transported through the Barents Sea has a strong influence on the ice conditions in the northern Kara Sea. In this thesis, trends and interannual variability in sea ice conditions in the Kara Sea area studied. For this purpose, coupled sea ice-ocean model NEMO-LIM3 and sea ice concentration datasets derived from passive microwave satellite observations (SMMR, SSM/I and SSMIS) are used. Additionally, the model performance is assessed by comparing its output with the observations. The ice coverage examined in regional and local scales shows negative trends in all months in 1978-2015. The interannual variability of the total ice covered fraction increased in winter and spring when the ice regime shifted from full to partial ice cover over the sea. Meanwhile the variability in summer and autumn decreased. The annual ice free time rapidly extended in the area north of Novaya Zemlya where the warm Atlantic water enters the Kara Sea. The mean sea ice thickness, based on the sea ice-ocean model data in 1997-2015, has become thinner in all months. The model is generally in good agreement with the observations, with the exception of the northern Kara Sea where the model underestimated heat advection. The findings confirm that the sea ice conditions in the Kara Sea have changed towards a new regime with shorter and more variable ice seasons.

Diurnal temperature range (DTR), defined as the difference between daily maximum and minimum temperatures, is an important variable in ecosystem dynamics. Human-induced climate change, which has increased mean temperatures worldwide, has been noted to cause global changes in DTR. In this thesis, the changes in daily maximum and minimum temperatures, as well as diurnal temperature range, were studied between the climatological periods of 1961–1990 and 1991–2020 from twenty weather observation stations in Finland. Student’s t-test was utilized to assess the statistical significance of the differences between period mean values. The results show that daily maximum and minimum temperatures have risen significantly across Finland in all seasons. The differences between 1961–1990 and 1991–2020 mean values were +1.26 °C and +1.51 °C for daily maximum and minimum temperatures, respectively. Both daily maximum and minimum temperatures have risen most notably in winter (DJF), with daily extreme temperatures increasing asymmetrically. The increase in temperatures was more pronounced for daily minimum temperatures, rising by approximately 3 °C in winter, nearly one degree more than daily maximum temperatures during the same season. Annually averaged diurnal temperature range has generally decreased in Finland from 1961–1990 to 1991–2020. The decrease in DTR was statistically significant in the northern part of Finland, and overall, the country experienced a statistically significant decrease of −0.25 °C. The decreases in annual mean DTR exhibited a latitudinal pattern, with the largest decrease observed in northern Finland and smallest in southern Finland. The majority of the decrease in DTR occurred during winter across the country, whereas changes in the other seasons were smaller and varied in direction. A decrease in DTR in Finland has been reported by other studies, although the results in this thesis (−0.09 °C/decade trend) are larger in amplitude compared to other estimates. The decrease in winter DTR was attempted to be explained by changes in air mass advection, which substantially influences diurnal temperature range in addition to influencing day-to-day variations in temperature. It was concluded that changes in air mass advection have substantially influenced the changes in winter DTR, but they may not necessarily explain all of the observed changes. Cloud cover changes were examined using ERA5 reanalysis data, but these changes were judged to be unimportant for the decrease in winter DTR. However, asymmetrical cloud cover changes in the other seasons could have potentially contributed to the differing direction of DTR change observed in spring, summer and autumn across the country.

Northern peatlands form a globally significant carbon reservoir holding almost one third of global terrestrial organic soil carbon. Peatlands are in constant interaction with the atmosphere and their carbon balance can change from a sink to a source. Climate is the one of the most important factors controlling peatland dynamics and subsequently carbon dynamics. As global warming is predicted to have increasingly strong impacts over the high latitudes, also peatlands will be affected. Peatlands are an environment defined by a certain type of vegetation, which can tolerate excess moisture and of often low pH. Peatland vegetation can be divided based on the preferred habitat conditions. Peatland vegetation compositions are not static, but instead everchanging and they react to changes in climate and environment, observed as shifts from vegetation assemblage to another. I studied the climatic response of peatland vegetation compositions in Lakkasuo bog in Southern Finland. High resolution macrofossil approach was carried out to observe peat vegetation changes trough time, in particular I studied responses to known climate phases. To obtain robust chronologies, both 210Pb and 14C dating was applied. Peat bulk density and C/N ratio was also analysed, carbon accumulation rates calculated, and current vegetation and water table depth (WTD) measured in the field. Three peat sections, 50-60cm from the top, were analysed. Dating revealed that the peat sections reached back c. 300 years. Plant data was statistically analysed using Changepoint to make an objective core-to-core comparison of the changes and the timing of vegetation shifts. Because WTD is largely defining the vegetation compositions in bogs, for Lakkasuo sites three bog microforms, i.e. microhabitats, currently representing different WTD levels were chosen for the palaeoecological analyses. Vegetation was inspected in high plant taxonomical level and as larger compositional groups (plant functional types). For changepoint analyses plant taxa were classified as “dry”, “intermediate” and “wet” based on their preferred moisture conditions today. Macrofossil data indicated clear shifts in vegetation composition in Lakkasuo as a response to the Little Ice Age (LIA) cool period and to current warming. LIA was characterised by presence of wet taxa. Current warming, in turn, is visible as an increase in dry taxa. This leads to the conclusion that climate has been the prevalent controlling factor for the bog vegetation during the last c. 300 years. Current development towards dry conditions in Lakkasuo will affect the peatland carbon dynamics. The peatland is projected to experience decrease in effective moisture hindering carbon uptake capability.

Atmospheric aerosols are solid or liquid phase particles which are suspended in ambient air. These particles have an impact on the climate through direct and indirect radiative forcing, and their measurement presents challenges in high latitude environments where concentrations may fall under the detection limit of the responsible instruments. In order to both qualify and quantify the contribution of aerosol particles to environmental change at higher latitudes, it is important to understand their microphysical and optical properties, which control their interaction with visible wavelength radiation. This thesis focuses on the characterisation of the aforementioned aerosol properties in a High Arctic environment, Villum Research Station (Northeast Greenland), during two six-month observation periods in 2020 and 2021. The parameters presented in the analysis are particle total number concentration and size distribution in the 0.3 - 10 μm size range, particle scattering coefficients σsp, particle absorption coefficients σap, and Ångström exponents describing the wavelength dependence of both optical coefficients. The seasonal variability and distribution of these properties was analysed, and case studies of exceptional particle number concentration identified as particle transport events to evaluate the contribution of local and long-distance source regions to the overall aerosol population at the station. The results of the analysis show that there is a notable seasonality to both number concentration and optical characteristics of aerosol particles at Villum Research Station, with median values for these parameters at their highest in the winter, followed by the autumn and then the summer. The dominant species during episodes of exceptional particle number concentrations were found to be dust, Elemental Carbon/Organic Carbon (EC/OC) and mixed aerosols, with source regions across continental Greenland, the Canadian Archipelago and Arctic Ocean.

Graphite is formed mainly by graphitization processes from organic precursor in high-grade metamorphic conditions, or precipitation of carbon from carbon-bearing fluids. Quality of the graphite, i.e. crystallinity, flake size and purity, determines its use and commercial value. Demand for graphite has been on the rise and is expected to increase more in the near future. The Korsnäs region in Ostrobothnia, Western Finland, is a prominent target for a graphite exploration based on the region’s geological history, i.e. the Svecofennian accretionary orogeny and high-grade metamorphic conditions. Graphite is ubiquitous in the area, and has been enriched mainly in the metapelitic schists intercalated within the paragneisses. The aim of the master’s thesis is to study the mineralogical characteristics and quality of the graphite, as well as estimate the economic importance of the graphite occurrences in the area of Korsnäs. Additionally, the origin of the graphite formations and their relationship to the regional metamorphic conditions are considered in this research. Mineralogical characteristics and quality of the graphite flakes were studied from the polished thin sections with optical microscopes and scanning electron microscope. Crystallinity of the graphite flakes was analyzed by a Raman spectroscopy, which has been used widely to measure orderly structure of a carbonaceous material. Peak temperatures of the metamorphic conditions were estimated from the Raman results using geothermometers. Based on the petrographic analysis, graphite is abundant, and the morphology refers to a flake graphite. Large proportion of the flakes are over 0.3 mm on their c-axis, which can be considered as large and the most valuable type of a flake graphite. Crystallinity of the graphite was determined from the Raman spectra using the peak intensity ratio (R1) of the graphite band and the main disordered band. The analyzed graphite flakes show good values for the R1 parameter (mean value 0.05 ± 0.05), indicating high crystallinity, and consequently, high-grade metamorphic conditions or precipitation from carbon-bearing fluids for the formation mechanism. The estimated peak temperatures are ranging from 650 to 695°C, which are consistent with the mineral assemblages of the migmatite and paragneiss samples, but inconsistent with the graphite-bearing metapelitic schists. The biotite-garnet and biotite-garnet-cordierite (sillimanite) paragneisses does not show any meaningful evidence of a retrograde overprint, but it is apparent that the graphite bearing samples have experienced retrograde metamorphism and hydrothermal alteration. This is evident from the lack of high-grade metamorphic minerals, presence of lower metamorphic grade minerals, and the estimated high peak temperatures for the formation of the graphite. Consequently, the R1 parameter suggests that the graphite in these rocks has not been affected by the retrograde metamorphism. The origin of the high-crystalline graphite appears to be a graphitization of biogenic material, but fluid-deposited graphite cannot be completely ruled out. Some carbon enrichment may have occurred by fluid-rock interactions. Further studies and detailed analyses, such as locating the possible high-grade deposits and determining the purity of the graphite, are needed. In conclusion, the high-crystalline graphite in the Korsnäs region is of good quality and shows prominent results for the commercial value.

Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) has a high quantum efficiency and a bandgap of 1.44 eV. As a consequence, it is being used to efficiently detect gamma rays. The aim of this thesis is to explore the properties of the CdTe pixelated detector and the procedures conducted in order to fine-tune the electronic readout system. A fully functional CdTe detector would be useful in medical imaging techniques such as Boron Neutron Capture Therapy (BNCT). BNCT requires a detector with a good energy resolution, a good timing resolution and a good stopping power. Although the CdTe crystal is a promising material, its growing process is difficult due to the fact that different types of defects appear inside the crystal. The quality assurance process has to be thorough in order for suitable crystals to be found. An aluminum oxide layer (Al2O3) was passivated onto the surface of the crystal. The contacts for both sides were created using Titanium Tungsten (TiW) and gold (Au) sputtering deposition, followed by an electroless nickel growth. I tested the CdTe pixelated detector with different radioactive sources such as Am-241, Ba-133, Co-57, Cs-137 and X-ray quality series in order to study the sensitivity of the device and its capacity to detect gamma and X-rays.

Genomic structural variants are large events that change the structure of the genome. These can cause changes in the functions of cells by breaking genes and genomic regulatory regions. Multiple factors are known to affect the formation of structural variants and previous studies have shown that often the sequence content in a genomic region plays a role in their formation. This study aims to characterize the sequence content around structural variant breakpoints from structural variants which have been detected from human tissue samples which have been whole genome sequenced with nanopore sequencing. The characterization was done by looking at the genomic repetitive elements found around the breakpoints, by analyzing the GC-content around the breakpoints, and by studying what kind of enriched DNA motifs were found in the sequences around the breakpoints and how these were located in these sequences. Multiple different repetitive elements were seen to occur near the breakpoint regions, and it was also observed that there were differences in what kind of repetitive elements were seen around different types of structural variants. Around the sequences of different kinds of structural variants there was also distinct differences in what kind of GC-content profiles the sequences had. In addition, various different enriched motifs were also found from the sequences and many of these showed distinct variation on how they were located around the breakpoints. These results support the previous findings showing that also here the sequence content does play a role in the formation of structural variants, but still all of the results here could not be directly explained by previous studies. In these results, it was seen that the GC-content was higher in sequences that have been affected by an event that causes structural variant formation. Also, many of the found DNA motifs were distinctly skewed around the breakpoint sequences, possibly hinting that the sequences containing these motifs would be prone to the formation of structural variants.

In a quantum computer, the information carriers, which are bits in ordinary computers, are implemented as devices that exhibit coherent superpositions of physical states and entanglement. Such components, known as quantum bits or qubits, can be realized with various different types of two-state quantum systems. Quantum computers will be built for computational speed, with hoped for applications especially in cryptography and in other tasks where classical computers remain inefficient. Circuit quantum electrodynamics (cQED) is a quantum-computer architecture which employs superconducting electronic components and microwave photon fields as building blocks. Compared to cavity quantum electrodynamics (CQED), where atoms are trapped in physical cavities, cQED is more attractive in that its qubits are tunable and conveniently integrable with the electronics already in use. This architecture has shown some of the most promising qubit designs, despite their coherence times reaching tens of microseconds, are still below the state of the art with spin qubits, which reach milliseconds. Coherence times are historically the most relevant parameters describing the fitness of a qubit, although these days not necessarily the limiting factor. This thesis presents a comprehensive set of theoretical and experimental methods for measuring the characteristic parameters of superconducting qubits. We especially study transmission-line-shunted plasma oscillation qubits, or transmons, and presents experimental results for a single sample. Transmon capacitively couples a superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID) with a coplanar waveguide (CPW) resonator, often with added frequency tunability utilizing an external magnet. The number of superconducting charge carriers tunnelled through a junction in the SQUID are used as qubit degrees of freedom. Readout of the qubit state is carried out by measuring transmission through the CPW. A cryogenic setup is employed with measurement and driving pulses delivered from microwave sources. Steady-state spectroscopy is employed to determine the resonance frequencies of the qubit and the resonator, qubit-resonator coupling constants, and the energy parameters of the qubit. Pulse-modulated measurements are employed to determine the coherence times of the qubit. The related analysis- and simulation programs and scripts are collected togithub.com/patomaki.

Flavour violating processes have never been observed for charged leptons, electron, muon and tau. The existence of charged lepton flavour violating (CLFV) processes is however expected, since flavour is violated by all the other fermions of the standard model (SM). In the standard model the neutrinos are massless, which forbids the mixing of neutrino flavour and also the violation of lepton flavour. The zero mass of the neutrinos in the SM is in conflict with the experimentally observed neutrino oscillations. The standard model has to be extended to include massive neutrinos. The easiest way to explain the neutrino mass is to assume that they acquire masses in the same way as the rest of the SM fermions: in the Higgs mechanism. This way however leads to problems with the naturality of the neutrino Yukawa coupling. One of the most popular methods of generating the neutrino mass is the so called seesaw mechanism (type-I). The standard model, extended with the neutrino masses, allows the charged lepton flavour to be violated. This leads to unobservably small transition rates however. Therefore an observation of charged lepton flavour violating process would be a clear evidence of the existence of new physics beyond the standard model and it's trivial extensions. To have hope of ever observing charged lepton flavour violating processes, there must be an extension of the standard model which produces observable, though small, rates for CLFV processes. One of the most popular extensions of the standard model is the so called minimal supersymmetric standard model (MSSM). The neutrinos are massless in the MSSM, as they are in SM, and therefore CLFV processes are forbidden in the MSSM. Luckily the neutrino masses can be generated via seesaw mechanism in the MSSM as well as in the SM. The MSSM contains more potential sources for CLFV processes than the SM. The extra sources are the soft mass parameters of the sleptons. In supersymmetric models the sleptons couple to the leptons through the slepton-lepton-gaugino-vertices. These generate the CLFV processes at the loop-level. Often the off-diagonal soft terms are assumed zero in the MSSM at the input scale, where the supersymmetry breaks. Experiments are done at much lower electroweak scale. The soft SUSY-breaking terms acquire large radiative corrections as they are run from the input scale down to the electroweak scale. Here the seesaw mechanism kicks in. The seesaw mechanism brings with it the off-diagonal neutrino Yukawa coupling matrices. This allows the off-diagonal slepton mass terms to evolve non-zero at the electroweak scale. In this thesis the charged lepton flavour violation is discussed first in the context of the standard model. Then the CLFV processes, l_i → (l_j γ), l_i → (l_j l_k l_l) and l_i ↔ l_j, are studied in the most general way: in the effective theories. Finally the charged lepton flavour violation is studied in the supersymmetric theories in general and more specifically in the minimal supersymmetric standard model extended with the seesaw mechanism (type-I).