Browsing by Subject "Namibia"

Äitiyskuolleisuuden vähentäminen 75 prosentilla vuosien 1990 ja 2015 välisenä aikana on yksi YK:n vuosituhattavoitteista. Keskeinen keino tavoitteeseen pääsemiseksi on mahdollistaa kaikille raskaana oleville naisille pääsy hyvälaatuiseen äitiysterveydenhoitoon. Lounais-Afrikassa sijaitsevassa Namibiassa äitiyskuolleisuus on kasvanut viime vuosikymmeninä. Lisäksi köyhät ja maaseudulla asuvat namibialaisnaiset saavat heikommin äitiysterveydenhoitoa kuin kaupungissa asuvat varakkaammat naiset. Tässä pro gradu -tutkielmassa tarkastellaan asuinalueen mukaista vaihtelua äitiysterveydenhoidon saamisessa Namibiassa. Tavoitteena oli selvittää, millaisia eroja on hoidon saamisessa asuinalueiden välillä ja selittävätkö naisen sosiodemografiset tekijät tai naisen asemaan liittyvät naisen omat tai asuinalueen miesten ja naisten asenteet alueiden välistä eroa hoidon saamisessa. Taustamuuttujia olivat naisen koulutustaso, kotitalouden varallisuus, naisen siviilisääty, aiempien synnytysten määrä sekä naisen asenne naisiin kohdistuvaan väkivaltaan. Aluetason muuttujia olivat asuinalueen naisten ja miesten asenne naisiin kohdistuvaan väkivaltaan sekä alueen miesten asenne siihen, saako mies käyttää valtaa naista kohtaan sekä siihen, onko synnytys vain naisen huolenaihe. Aineistona tutkimuksessa käytettiin Namibia Demographic and Health Survey 2006–2007 -otantatutkimusta, jossa haastateltiin 13 719 henkilöä. Heistä 4029 oli synnyttäneitä naisia. Analyysi tehtiin logistisella regressioanalyysillä. Aineiston mutkikas otanta-asetelma huomioitiin logistisessa regressioanalyysissä käyttämällä asetelmaperustaista tilastollista analyysiä. Tutkimuksessa Namibian 13 hallinnollista aluetta jaettiin kolmeen ryhmään: pohjoiseen, pääkaupunkiin ja muuhun osaan maasta. Pohjoiseen kuuluivat Caprivin, Kavangon, Ohangwenan, Omusatin, Oshanan ja Oshikoton hallinnolliset alueet, pääkaupunkiin Khomas ja muu maa -alueeseen Erongo, Hardap, Karas, Omaheke ja Otjozundupa. Asuinalueiden välillä oli eroja äitiysterveydenhoidon saamisessa kaikissa hoidon osa-alueissa. Raskaudenaikaisista komplikaatioista annettavaa tietoa saivat heikoiten muu maa -alueella asuvat ja parhaiten pääkaupungissa asuvat, kun tiedon saamista tarkasteltiin vain asuinalueittain. Varallisuus sekä naisiin kohdistuvaan väkivaltaan liittyvät asenteet selittivät asuinalueen ja hoidon saamisen yhteyttä niin, että muuttujien vakioinnin jälkeen pohjoisessa sai parhaiten tietoa raskauteen liittyvistä komplikaatioista. Muu maa -alueella tiedon saaminen oli heikointa taustatekijöiden tai asenteiden vakioinnista huolimatta. Synnytyksen aikana ja sen jälkeen heikoiten hoitoa sai pohjoisessa ja parhaiten pääkaupungissa. Raskauden ja synnytyksen aikaisessa sekä synnytyksen jälkeisessä hoidossa varallisuus selitti asuinalueiden ja hoidon saamisen yhteyttä eniten. Kuitenkaan tarkastellut taustamuuttujat eivät selittäneet asuinalueiden ja hoidon saamisen yhteyttä kokonaan, vaan kaikkien muuttujien vakioimisen jälkeen hoitoa sai edelleen parhaiten pääkaupungissa ja heikoiten pohjoisessa. Alueen lisäksi sosiodemografisilla tekijöillä ja naisen asemaan liittyvillä asenteilla oli yhteys hoidon saamiseen. Kaikissa hoidon osa-alueissa koulutuksen kasvu lisäsi mahdollisuutta hoitoon, myös varallisuuden pienikin lisääntyminen oli yhteydessä parempaan hoidon saamiseen. Kaikissa hoidon osa-alueissa useat aiemmat synnytykset sekä naisiin kohdistuvan väkivallan hyväksyminen sen sijaan vaikeuttivat hoidon saamista. Synnytyksen aikaisessa ja synnytyksen jälkeisessä hoidossa myös miehen asenne siihen, että synnytys oli vain naisen huolenaihe, heikensi hoidon saamista. Tutkimuksen tulokset vahvistivat aiempaa tutkimustietoa siitä, että heikoiten äitiysterveydenhoitoa saavat pohjoisessa sekä maaseudulla asuvat köyhät ja kouluttamattomat naiset. Uutta tietoa tutkimus antoi asuinalueiden välisistä asenne-eroista Namibiassa sekä niiden yhteydestä hoidon saamiseen. Pohjoisessa naiseen kohdistuva väkivalta, naiseen kohdistuva vallankäyttö sekä se, että synnytys on vain naisen huolenaihe, oli muita alueita hyväksytympää. Namibia on sitoutunut YK:n vuosituhattavoitteiden mukaiseen äitiyskuolleisuuden laskuun, mutta sen on vaikeata saavuttaa tavoitteita, jolleivät pohjoisen köyhimmät naiset saa nykyistä paremmin äitiysterveydenhoitoa. Namibian olisi siten parannettava pohjoisessa asuvien naisten mahdollisuuksia saada terveydenhoitoa etenkin synnytyksen aikana sekä sen jälkeen.

Namibia has gone through great changes since its independence in 1990. The new constitution illegalized the apartheid rule and racial discrimination, but the history has left its marks on the contemporary society. The class inequalities are one the biggest in the world, and they still intertwine with the racial and tribal memberships. Although any kind of discrimination is strictly forbidden in the society, the prejudices still remain. Furthermore, the gender roles are in transition and women encounter multiple, sometimes conflicting expectations. In this context, the thesis studies multidimensional identity from the perspective of decency. More specifically, it explores how decency is conceived among black female nurses of Katutura township in Windhoek. The study investigates how the racial, tribal, gender, class and professional identities intersect and contribute to the perceptions of a ‘decent person’. The study also discovers how young women try to answer simultaneously to the traditional and modern female ideals. Lastly, the thesis illustrates how the class dominance, traditional gender roles and the ethnic and racial prejudices are resisted and reproduced through the perceptions on decency. In terms of class-related decency was demonstrated by diving the ‘indecent them’ to the upper and lower classes. The whites and the majority tribe of Owambos were accused of being discriminatory and having better opportunities in life. The lower classes were instead stigmatized as lazy and immoral individuals, who did not deserve the higher socio-economic positions. Thus, both the better and worse-off were claimed being less respectable than the interviewed nurses, who represented the middle class. However, the interviewees also identified with the lower class and admitted that the societal structures hindered their class mobility. To summarize, they simultaneously maintained and resisted the class dominance. Class also had a strong link to the female respectability. On the other hand, the modern woman was expected to be independent, to take care of herself and not to rely on the assistance of men. As the interviewees had succeeded in this, they achieved the dignity of a modern working woman. Still, on the other hand, the traditions expected them to follow the old gender roles. The conflicting expectations became apparent, for example when discussing the ‘ideal nurse’. The decent nurse was supposed to be a feminine mother-type of a figure, who put herself last in order to help others. Still, also the high professional expertise made the ‘proper nurse’. In this way, the nursing profession both strengthened and faded the women’s femininity and simultaneously rejected and reproduced the traditional gender ideals. However, it was the co-existence of the traditional and modern decency that enabled the nurses to maintain their respectability in the changing society. Regarding the racial and tribal relations, any kind of discrimination was condemned. Nevertheless, the condemnation was also an issue of differentiating those who had a good sense of morals and those who did not. The interviewees argued that the whites were still racist, but that they themselves promoted equality like a decent person should do. Considering this, it is controversial that they seemed to forget the principles of the universal equality when talking about the ethnic difference. They reproduced the same prejudices they judged in regard to racial discrimination. Moreover, they underlined their old and new identities as they draw strong lines between the racial and tribal groups, but also claimed for absolute equity. In this light, it is possible to argue that the societal transformation has a great impact on the decency perceptions of the Namibians. The historical stances remain side by side the ideologies of the post-apartheid era, although the attitudinal change is taking place. The class inequalities and discrimination clash with the aspirations of equality, the traditional gender roles are challenged by the modern female respectabilities and the group relations are defined by both reconciliation and boundary making.

This study presents a population projection for Namibia for years 2011–2020. In many countries of sub-Saharan Africa, including Namibia, the population growth is still continuing even though the fertility rates have declined. However, many of these countries suffer from a large HIV epidemic that is slowing down the population growth. In Namibia, the epidemic has been severe. Therefore, it is important to assess the effect of HIV/AIDS on the population of Namibia in the future. Demographic research on Namibia has not been very extensive, and data on population is not widely available. According to the studies made, fertility has been shown to be generally declining and mortality has been significantly increasing due to AIDS. Previous population projections predict population growth for Namibia in the near future, yet HIV/AIDS is affecting the future population developments. For the projection constructed in this study, data on population is taken from the two most recent censuses, from 1991 and 2001. Data on HIV is available from HIV Sentinel Surveys 1992–2008, which test pregnant women for HIV in antenatal clinics. Additional data are collected from different sources and recent studies. The projection is made with software (EPP and Spectrum) specially designed for developing countries with scarce data. The projection includes two main scenarios which have different assumptions concerning the development of the HIV epidemic. In addition, two hypothetical scenarios are made: the first considering the case where HIV epidemic would never have existed and the second considering the case where HIV treatment would never have existed. The results indicate population growth for Namibia. Population in the 2001 census was 1.83 million and is projected to result in 2.38/2.39 million in 2020 in the first two scenarios. Without HIV, population would be 2.61 million and without treatment 2.30 million in 2020. Urban population is growing faster than rural. Even though AIDS is increasing mortality, the past high fertility rates still keep young adult age groups quite large. The HIV epidemic shows to be slowing down, but it is still increasing the mortality of the working-aged population. The initiation of HIV treatment in 2004 in the public sector seems to have had an effect on many projected indicators, diminishing the impact of HIV on the population. For example, the rise of mortality is slowing down.

Tiivistelmä – Referat – Abstract One of the most critical post-independence issues of nation-building and inclusive national political, economic and social development is inequality between regions and ethnic communities in Namibia. Namibia is a diverse ethno-cultural country, and the plurality of different ethnic and linguistic communities create difficulties considering holistic national development processes since variety of needs should be supported and provided. Although Namibia has been performing well according various developmental indicators since the independence in 1990, a number of ethnic minorities are in vulnerable and marginalized position in the country. The study elaborates the issue of what constitutes the marginalization of ethnic minorities in Namibia in order to understand the mechanisms and forces that maintain certain ethnic communities marginalized in the society, as well as comprehend the developmental impact of marginalization. The question will be examined by investigating three interrelated aspects: 1) The definition and identification of ethnic marginalized communities; 2) How recognition is constituted by the state and what is the impact on the ethnic communities? and; 3) What are the key developmental issues that constitute/maintain the situation? All these issues will be explored by investigating the key interrelated mechanisms and forces that constitute the marginalization of ethnic communities in Namibia including historical patterns of exclusion, ethnic labelling, the state policies and practices, and political and socio-economic citizenship. In order to shed light on the topic, 26 qualitative thematic interviews have been conducted among young Namibian respondents and Namibian and international experts, complemented by a literature review. It was found out, that all respondents as well as the state acknowledge the existence of ethnic marginalized communities and their marginalized position in the country. Further, it is generally acknowledged which ethnic communities are considered to be marginalized. The main argument is, that the situation of certain ethnic communities is worse off in Namibia in relation to other ethnic communities and there are number of internal and external interrelated and partly conditional issues that affect and maintain their marginalization. Firstly, the relation between ethnicity, indigenousness and minority status to marginalization was examined. First and foremost, it was recognized that ethnic background, political and socio-economiccitizenship as well as inidgenousness influence the marginalization of ethnic communities in Namibia.It was also found out that despite the phenomena and terminology regarding indigenousness and minority status are debated and questioned in the Namibian context, the definitions, identification and categorization of these phenomena are applied to some extent. Moreover, the issue of what constitutes the recognition or non-recognition and what is the impact on ethnic marginalized communities was examined. It became evident, that there are different levels and types of recognition. All Namibians are recognized as citizens, but not necessarily as a community that affects the situation of distinct communities e.g. through specific rights or entitlements. The key issue of recognition in Namibia is the official recognition of a traditional authority as per the Traditional Authorities Act (1995). Traditional authorities have power at local and national levels, and they are important e.g. in terms of land allocation. If ethnic community do not have officially recognized traditional authority, they are even in more marginalized position in the country than other marginalized ethnic communities. Lastly, the general political and socio-economic status is one of the strongest determinants that affect and maintain the marginalization of ethnic communities. The key political and socio-economic interrelated internal and external issues identified are e.g. overall discrimination, lack of self-worth and agency, lack of recognition and inadequate political representation, poverty and lack of basic needs, inadequate access to services and opportunities, and lack of secure access to land and resources.