Browsing by discipline "Farmakologi"

Prostate cancer is one of the most common cancers in the developed countries. Prostate cancer is slowly progressing cancer but can transform into aggressive disease and metastasize. Metastases are the major cause of mortality. Androgens play an important role in the pathogenesis of prostate cancer and prostate tumors are usually dependent on androgens. Thus the aim of the treatment is to eliminate testicular androgens by surgical or medical castration and/or block the effect of androgens on the prostate with antiandrogens. Prostate cancer and new therapies to treat the disease are being investigated vigorously. Numerous in vivo models of prostate cancer have been developed. Androgen responsive animal models mimic prostate cancer more closely. There are many animal species that may be used to model prostate cancer but mouse is no doubt the most useful. Tumor models can be created by inoculating human cancer cells or solid parts of tumors into immune deficient mice. Orthotopic prostate tumor models reflect the abnormal cancer cell-stroma interactions occuring in prostate cancer. Transgenic mouse models are becoming more and more common in the research of prostate cancer. Transgenic models are able to model the initiation and progression of the disease more realistically. Growth of the orthotopic tumor is difficult to monitor without measuring serum prostate specific antigen (PSA) concentrations or using specific imaging methods. Imaging techniques, such as optical imaging, are being utilized in different in vivo models of prostate cancer. The objective of the experimental part of this thesis was to optimize bioluminescence imaging method in androgen responsive cell line LNCaP-luc2 in orthotopic model of prostate cancer. Bioluminescence imaging is based on a reaction catalyzed by a luciferase which is expressed by the tumor cells. In the ATP-dependent reaction luciferase enzyme oxidizes its substrate, luciferin, and produces light. In addition, the purpose of this study was to examine the effects of medical therapy and castration on tumor growth. Bioluminescence imaging enabled noninvasive, real-time and longitudinal monitoring of the growth of prostate tumors in this model. Quantification of the tumors with bioluminescence measurement was faster than with ultrasound sonography. It was also possible to monitor the growth of the tumors more often with bioluminescence imaging than with PSA measurements. Bioluminescence imaging was found to correlate better with serum PSA concentrations than with the actual size of the tumor. However prostate tumor size was noted to correlate better with PSA concentrations than with bioluminescence imaging in this study. Medical treatment or castration was found to have no effect on the size of the tumors when measured with bioluminescence imaging. The larger size of the tumors than expected was the probable reason for this. Bioluminescence imaging is not suitable for large or necrotic tumors because this imaging method can only be applied in living cells. In addition, a successful luciferin injection is essential for the proper utilization of bioluminescence imaging in this model. More studies are needed to validate the model for example in proving the effects of the medical therapies.

Gene therapy is an experimental technique that involves inserting therapeutic genes into the target cells to treat diseases. Gene transfer can be performed by ex vivo or in vivo method. Ex vivo method means transferring the therapeutic gene in laboratory to the cells that are removed from the patient, after which the cells are returned to the patient. In the in vivo method the gene transfer is performed directly to the target tissue inside the patient's body. Gene therapy clinical trials have been carried out to treat many diseases. The majority of the clinical trials have so far been cancer trials. Nevertheless, the most promising results have been established in treating diseases that arise from mutations in a single gene, i.e. monogenic diseases. Monogenic diseases include e.g. hemophilia and heritable immunodeficiencies. The biggest challenges in the clinical trials so far have been the limited gene transfer efficiency of the currently used gene vectors, the short duration of the transgene expression and the side-effects in viral-mediated gene transfer. Nonviral gene transfer agents have so far been less efficient in vivo than the viral vectors. This is partly due to the interaction between serum components and nonviral vectors. The main purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of serum to the gene transfer efficiency of a nonviral vector polyethyleneimine PEI22K and the combination of PEI22K and cationic liposome Dosper in vitro in the SMC-cells. The potential synergistic increase in the transfection efficiency of PEI22K/Dosper combination was also studied. The secondary goal in this study was to develop an in vitro model which could be used to predict the gene transfer efficiency of gene vectors in vivo. The combination of PEI22K and Dosper resulted in a synergistic increase in the transfection efficiency in serum-free transfection. In the presence of serum the efficiency of PEI22K was higher than the efficiency of PEI22K/Dosper combination. 1-10% serum concentrations did not significantly affect PEI22K`s transfection efficiency, but dramatically decreased the efficiency of PEI22K/Dosper combination. The results suggest that PEI22K is more suitable than PEI22K/Dosper combination for in vivo gene transfer.

Review of the literature: The purpose of the review is to go through what is known about mechanisms of actions of different neurotrophic factors (GDNF, neurturin, CDNF and MANF) and how they are transported within the brain. Neurotrophic factors are endogenous and secreted proteins which have a pivotal role in the development and maintenance of neurons. They support the survival of neurons and they can help them to recover from different injuries. Due to these functions neurotrophic factors might be beneficial for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders like Parkinson's disease. There are a great deal of studies that clearly show the neuroprotective and neurorestrorative function of GDNF and neurturin on dopaminergic neurons. They are also studied in clinical studies with Parkinson's patients but the results have been partly contradictory. The signalling route of GDNF and neurturin via RET tyrosinekinasereceptor is fairly well known but the other mechanisms of action of these factors needs to be studied further. CDNF and MANF constitute a novel, evolutionarily conserved family of neurotrophic factors. They are shown to have neuroprotective and neurorestrorative actions on dopaminergic neurons both in vitro and in vivo in a rodent model of Parkinson's disease. The mechanisms of action of CDNF and MANF are not quite clear at the moment. There are two different domains in their structure both of which are likely to carry different functions. The N-terminal domains of these proteins are close to saposins, lipid and membrane binding proteins, some of which are shown to have neurotrophic and anti-apoptotic effects. The C-terminal domain of MANF, in turn, is structurally close to the SAP-domain of Ku70-protein which binds Bax in the cytoplasm and thus inhibits apoptosis mediated by Bax. CDNF and MANF might protect neurons both via intracellular mechanisms and extracellularly acting like a secreted neurotrophic factor. CDNF and GDNF are transported retrogradially from striatum to substantia nigra. MANF, unlike the others, is transported from striatum to the frontal cortex. MANF and CDNF are shown to have better diffusion properties in the brain parenchyma than GDNF. Experimental part: We studied, by means of microdialysis, the effects of CDNF, MANF and GDNF on the dopaminergic neurotransmission of naive rats within the striatum. Neurotrophic factors (10 µg) and PBS as a negative control were injected into the left striatum in stereotaxic surgery. After this rats recovered one week before the first mircodialysis. The second mircodialysis was performed three weeks after the surgery. The samples were collected from the left striatum of freely moving rats. During the microdialysis neurotransmission was stimulated by replacing the perfusion solution with hypertonic potassium solution and with amphetamine solution. The concentration of dopamine, DOPAC, HVA and 5-HIAA was measured from the dialysate samples. In vivo TH-activity experiment was carried out for three rats in each group. NSD1015 was injected i.p.after which rats were decapitated and their striatums were dissected. The concentration of L-DOPA, dopamine and metabolites on the treated and untreated hemisphere were analyzed from the tissue samples. The amount of L-DOPA in the striatum after NSD1015-treatment indicates how active TH-enzyme is. There were no significant differences in the concentrations of dopamine and metabolites during the baseline. MANF and CDNF increased the release of dopamine from the nerve terminals compared to GDNF and PBS one week after the surgery. Three weeks after the surgery there was still significant increase in the release of dopamine in MANF group compared to GDNF group. Also the dopamine-DOPAC-turnover was increased significantly in MANF group compared to GDNF and PBS groups one week after the surgery. DOPAC/HVA -ratio was significantly smaller in GDNF group than in other groups one week after the surgery. These findings suggest that MANF potentiates dopaminergic neurotransmission most drasticly. The effects of MANF seem to last longer time than the effects of other neurotrophic factors. CDNF seems to increase the release of dopamine from the nerve terminals as well. The potentiation of dopaminergic neurotransmission could be due to increased biosynthesis of dopamine or due to the potentiation of the function of nerve terminals. In the results of the TH-activity experiment there was a trend according to which L-DOPA is synthesized less after the neurotrophic factor treatment that after the PBS treatment. This suggests that neurotrophic factors might decrease the activity of TH-enzyme.

Angiogenesis, the formation of new blood vessels from preexisting vascular network, is an essential process during tumor development. Growing tumors secrete different growth factors that induce angiogenesis, of which vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is predominant. Angiogenesis inhibitors act either by blocking the extracellular bindning of growth factor to its receptor by monoclonal antibodies or by blocking the intracellular signalling pathway by small-molecule agents. The small-molecule agent sunitinib is a multitargeted tyrosine kinase inhibitor that has antiangiogenic and antitumor activities due to the selective inhibition of several tyrosine kinase receptors. Sunitinib is approved for treatment of gastrointestinal stromal tumors, renal cell carcinoma and pancreatic neuroendocrine tumors. Known side effects are hypertension, cardiotoxicity and renal damage. These toxic effects are due to sunitinibs "off-target" toxicity, which occurs when a tyrosine kinase inhibitor causes adverse effects via inhibiton of a kinase not intended to be a target of the drug. For example inhibition by sunitinib of AMPK, a kinase that plays key roles in maintaining metabolic homeostasis in the heart, accounts in part for the toxicity seen in cardiomyocytes exposed to sunitinib. By achieving a better understandning of what causes the side effects it could be possible to develop treatments that reduce off-target effects. Caloric restriction is one nonpharmacological approach that has been shown to have beneficial effects on the heart partly by activating sirtuins. Sirtuins regulate a diverse array of cellular functions, including metabolism, gene transcription, cell division and cellular stress response. The aim for this study was to investigate whether caloric restriction improves sunitinib-induced cardiovascular toxicity and renal damage in rats, and to study activated cellular pathways. In this study 40 spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) and 10 normotensive Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats were used. They were divided into groups depending on treatment; I WKY control, II SHR control, III SHR + caloric restriction 70 %, IV SHR + sunitinib 3 mg/kg and V SHR sunitinib 3 mg/kg + caloric restriction 70 %. The follow-up period was eigth weeks. Blood pressure was messured weekly, metabolic cages were used week 4 and week 8 for urine samples, echocardiography was performed the last week and vascular response was studied at the end. The proteins Sirt1 and AMPK in heart were investigated by Western blot and the amount of the marker of macrofage ED1 in kidney by immunohistochemistry. Based on this study it was observed that the dose 3 mg/kg sunitinib was well tolerated in rats because it did not cause more extensive hypertension, worse hypertrophy or renal damage compared to untreated SHR groups. This study also showed that short-term caloric restriction has beneficial cardiovascular effects.

Histamine is a monoamine structured signal molecule, which takes part in many functions of living organisms. It was first found in brain approximately 70 years ago. Neuronal histamine regulates for example biological rhythms, energy metabolism and thermoregulation. In the 1980's, H3-receptor was recognized in the brain. Neuronal histamine regulates functions of other transmitters for example gamma-aminobutyric acid, glutamate, acetylcholine, noradrenaline and dopamine. Currently, the interactions of histamine and dopamine are not well characterized. Though, it is known that histaminergic fibers innerviate almost every dopaminergic area of the brain. There are also several H3-receptors in the striatum and in the limbic system. These brain areas are important for the rewarding effect of dopamine. The aim of the experimental part of this Master's thesis was to examine the location of histaminergic and dopaminergic nervous systems in mouse brain by using immunohistochemistry. Primary antibodies that were produced in rabbit (anti-histamine (HA)) and in mouse (anti-tyrosine hydroxylase (TH)), and secondary anti-rabbit and anti-mouse anti-bodies, that were produced in goat and conjugated with fluorophores, were used in the study. The samples were imaged with a confocal microscope. The primary aim was to find out, in which addiction related brain areas, histamine and dopamine cells and fibers are located and how they are situated in relation to each other. H3-receptor antagonists have been shown to decrease the consumption and rewarding effect of alcohol in animal models. Therefore, it was examined if non-imidazole structured H3-receptor antagonist also inhibits the rewarding effect of amphetamine, and if it decreases the locomotor activity induced by amphetamine. JNJ-39220675, a neutral antagonist of H3-receptor, and behavioral paradigm of conditioned place preference (CPP) were used in the experiment. CPP was also used to find out if D2-receptor agonist quinpirole cause reward or aversion. The effect of JNJ-39220675 on quinpirole's place preference and change in locomotor activity was also investigated. The interactions of these two pharmacological ligands were also examined in a separate locomotor activity experiment. C57BL/6J mice were used in all experiments. The results show that there are possible synaptic connections of histaminergic and dopaminergic system in substantia nigra, supramammillary nucleus, dorsomedial hypothalamic area and ventral periaqueductal grey area. Also, histaminergic nerve fibers innerviate to the dorsal striatum, which regulates motor functions, and to the ventral striatum, which is a part of the rewarding system of the brain. Hence, it is possible that histamine regulates the actions of dopa-mine in these brain areas. The behavioral experiments showed that JNJ-39220675 inhibits acutely increased locomotor activity caused by amphetamine, and decreases desensitation of decreased locomotor action caused by repeated dose of quinpirole. However, JNJ-39220675 did not have any effect on the rewarding effect of amphetamine, which causes strong sensitization. Also, JNJ-39220675 did not have an effect on quinpirole's aversive action. It remains to be seen, if H3-receptor is a potential target for new medicines in the treatment of different brain diseases and addiction in the future.

Kolinergiset α6*-nikotiinireseptorit ovat kiinnostavia, koska ne liittyvät mahdollisesti Parkinsonin tautiin ja nikotiiniriippuvuuteen. Ionikanavina toimivat nikotiinireseptorit ovat muodostuneet viidestä alayksiköstä, jotka esiintyvät erilaisina yhdistelminä. α6-alayksikköä sisältävät nikotiinireseptorit sijaitsevat presynaptisesti ja säätelevät dopamiinin vapautumista dopaminergisessä hermopäätteessä. α6*-nikotiinireseptorit ovat keskittyneet vain tietyille aivoalueille ja niitä esiintyy runsaasti dopaminergisissä hermosoluissa. α6*-nikotiinireseptoreita on erityisesti mesolimbisen ja nigrostriataalisen hermoradan dopaminergisissä hermosoluissa. Lisäksi niitä on paljon näkemiseen liittyvillä aivoalueilla. Nikotiini toimii asetyylikoliinin tavoin aktivoimalla α6*-nikotiinireseptoreita, mikä johtaa dopamiinin vapautumiseen hermopäätteessä. α6*-nikotiinireseptoreiden sijainnin, määrän ja toiminnan tutkimisessa on käytetty apuna muun muassa niille selektiivisiä antagonisteja, saalistavista merietanoista peräisin olevia α-konotoksiineja, erityisesti α-konotoksiini MII:ta. Nigrostriataalisella hermoradalla, joka ulottuu substantia nigrasta striatumiin, α6*-nikotiinireseptorit voivat vaikuttaa liikkeen säätelyyn. Nikotiini vapauttaa dopamiinia nigrostriataalisen hermoradan päätepisteessä, striatumissa, mikä voi lisätä liikeaktiivisuutta. Nikotiinilla on havaittu olevan hyödyllisiä vaikutuksia Parkinsonin taudin eläinmalleissa, mutta Parkinsonin tautipotilailla nikotiinihoidosta saadut tutkimustulokset ovat ristiriitaisia ja puutteellisia. α6*-nikotiinireseptoreille voitaisiin kehittää selektiivisiä agonisteja, joiden avulla lääkehoito voitaisiin kohdentaa paremmin ja vältyttäisiin mahdollisilta haittavaikutuksilta. Tupakanvieroitukseen tarvittaisiin lisää uusia selektiivisiä lääkehoitoja, joilla olisi hyvä hoitomyöntyvyys ja mahdollisimman vähän haittavaikutuksia. Mesolimbinen hermorata, joka ulottuu ventraaliselta tegmentaalialueelta nucleus accumbensiin, liittyy riippuvuuden syntyyn. Nikotiinin vaikutukset välittyvät VTA:n kautta nucleus accumbensiin, jossa vapautuu dopamiinia. Osa nikotiinin vaikutuksista välittyy myös presynaptisten α6*-nikotiinireseptorien kautta. Selektiivisistä α6*-nikotiinireseptoreiden antagonisteista voisi olla hyötyä nikotiiniriippuvuuden hoidossa, sillä niiden vaikutus vastaisi osittaisagonistin vaikutusta. α-konotoksiini PIA:n vaikutuksia nikotiinin aiheuttamaan dopamiinin vapautumiseen tutkittiin in vivo mikrodialyysimenetelmällä. α-konotoksiini PIA saalistavasta merietanasta eristetty selektiivinen α6*-nikotiinireseptoreiden antagonisti. Tutkimuksessa käytettiin vapaana liikkuvia urospuoleisia Wistar-rottia. Tutkimuksen kohteena olevat aivoalueet olivat striatum ja nucleus accumbens. Rotille asennettiin anestesiassa ohjauskanyyli joko striatumiin tai nucleus accum-bensiin stereotaktisen laitteen avulla. Mikrodialyysikokeessa koetinten tasapainotuksen jälkeen kerättiin perustason näytteet ja pistettiin saliini tai nomifensiini tai vaihdettiin Ringer-ruiskun tilalle α-konotoksiini PIA-ruisku. Puolen tunnin päästä pistettiin saliini tai nikotiini ja vaihdettiin Ringer-ruisku takaisin. Näytteitä kerättiin 15 minuutin välein yhteensä 5,5 tuntia. Lopuksi aivot otettiin talteen ja niistä tehtyjen aivoleikkeiden avulla tarkastettiin koetinten paikat. Mikrodialyysinäytteistä määritettiin HPLC-menetelmällä dopamiinin ja sen metaboliittien DO-PAC:n ja homovaniliinihapon sekä koejärjestelyssä oletettavasti muuttumattomana pysyvän 5-HIAA:n pitoisuudet. Koejärjestelyssä päätettiin käyttää tutkittavien aivoalueiden dopamiinipitoisuuden nostamiseen nomifensiinia, joka estää dopamiinin takaisinottoa hermopäätteissä. Käsittelyryhminä olivat saliini-saliini (n=striatum ja nucleus accumbens, 8+7), saliini-nomifensiini (n=8+4), saliini-nikotiini (n=3+4), nomifensiini-nikotiini (n=10+13) ja nomifensiini-nikotiini-α-konotoksiini PIA (n=8+5). Rottia jouduttiin hylkäämään eri syistä joko ennen mikrodialyysia, mikrodialyysin aikana tai sen jälkeen. Rottia hylättiin yhteensä 70 kpl. Tilastollisessa analyysissä tutkittujen käsittelyiden tai aivoalueiden välille ei saatu merkitseviä eroja, koska eläinten välinen hajonta oli liian suurta. Silmämääräisesti nomifensiini-nikotiinikäsittely nosti striatumin ja nucleus accumbensin dopamiinipitoisuuksia. α-konotoksiini PIA näytti estävän dopamiinin vapautumista striatumissa ja nucleus accumbensissa, mutta erot nomifensiini-nikotiinikäsittelyyn eivät olleet tilastollisesti merkitseviä. AUC-arvolla mitattuna α-konotoksiini PIA esti dopamiinin vapautumista striatumissa 39,6 % ja nucleus accumbensissa 31,3 %. Aivoalueiden välillä ei ollut tilastollisesti merkitseviä eroja.

Laminins are a family of heterotrimeric glycoproteins found mainly in basement membranes. They interact with numerous other extracellular matrix components and cell surface receptors, including integrins and α-dystroglycan. Laminins play roles in myriad of functions including tissue morphogenesis, organogenesis, maintenance of tissue integrity and compartmentalization. In central nervous system laminins are involved in every major developmental stage from neural tube closure to synaptogenesis. Laminin expression in central nervous system decreases after maturation but has been found inducible by injury after trauma or disease. Since laminins are known to promote neurite outgrowth and neuronal survival, this has been proposed as a regenerative response to injury. Although the effects of endogenous laminin are clearly inadequate for repair, laminin based compounds could be powerful therapeutic agents. In previous in vivo studies KDI-tripeptide, a neurite outgrowth promoting fragment from γ1-laminin, has proved effective neuroprotective and regeneration promoting compound. Encouraged by these results I set out to test whether KDI would rescue midbrain dopaminergic neurons in unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine-induced rat model of Parkinson's disease. KDI (1-30µg) was injected to the striatum six hours prior to 6-hydroxydopamine. The severity of the lesion was then evaluated by measuring D-amphetamine induced rotation 2, 4 and 6 weeks postlesion and by assessing the number of neurons in substantia nigra pars compacta and optical density of striatum after tyrosine hydroxylase immunostaining at week seven. The only effective KDI dose studied was 3 µg. Compared to control it decreased Damphetamine induced rotational behaviour significantly at week four. KDI, however, failed to save tyrosine hydroxylase positive dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra pars compacta or their axons in striatum. KDI might be usable in treating Parkinson's disease but it's mode of action doesn't appear to rely on protecting dopaminergic neurons or promoting the branching of their axons. KDI is known to inhibit ionotropic glutamate receptors and could therefore improve motor function by opposing striatal denervation induced overactivity of glutamatergic subthalamic nucleus neurons.

Heart failure is a complex and severe syndrome caused by different kinds of cardiovascular diseases. Pathophysiology of heart failure involves, for example, activation of sympathetic nervous system and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS), insufficiently contracting left ventricle, cardiac remodeling, myocyte mishandling of Ca2+ and myocyte loss owing to apoptosis. Despite advances in the management of patients with heart failure, the mortality of patients with heart failure remains high. The use of classic inotropic agents is hampered by poor prognosis due to increase in [Ca2+]i, induction of arrhytmias and increase in the myocardial oxygen consumption. Levosimendan is an inotropic agent that has positive inotropic and anti-stunning effects mediated by the calcium sensitization of the contractile proteins and vasodilatory, anti-ischemic and cardioprotective effects mediated by opening of sarcolemmal and mitochondrial KATP channels. Levosimendan also inhibits cardiac PDE3 predominately at higher concentrations. Levosimendan is currently used only as 24-hour infusion to improve symptoms of acute decompensated heart failure. However, other promising indications have also been discovered. For example, chronic use of oral levosimendan improves survival and protects cardiovascular system in vivo. In the present study, the effects of oral levosimendan, valsartan and their combination use on survival, blood pressure and cardiac remodeling were examined in Dahl/Rapp rats on a high salt diet (8 %). Levosimendan improved the survival in Dahl/Rapp rats on a high-salt diet, although not statistically significantly when compared to control group. The drug combination prevented completely salt-induced cardiovascular mortality. The combination therapy also produced a blood pressure-dependent protection against hypertension-induced hypertrophy measured by heart weight-to-body weight ratio (HW/BW) and echocardiographic parameters. Interestingly, the combination use of levosimendan and valsartan had an additive antihypertensive effect in Dahl/Rapp rats. Levosimendan slightly improved systolic function. However, echocardiography revealed increased IVRT in Dahl/Rapp control rats when compared to control group on low salt diet (0,2 %) indicating impaired diastolic relaxation in Dahl/Rapp rats. In the present study, levosimendan, alone and in combination with valsartan, also corrected hypertension-induced diastolic dysfunction.

In the written part of my master -thesis I discuss about GDNF signalling and more specifically how the changes in the GDNF/GFRα1/Ret signaling affect the nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons in different mutant mice. In the animal models of Parkinson's disease the neuroprotective and neurorestorative effects of exogenous GDNF are very clear which raises hope for use of GDNF in treatment of Parkinson's disease. In intact animals GDNF stimulates the function of nigrostriatal dopaminergic system. Revealing the role of GDNF/GFRα1/Ret signaling in development, maintenance and protection of nigrostriatal dopaminergic system will certainly help in search for treatment of neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease. In knockout mouse models GDNF/GFRα1/Ret signaling is not crucial for prenatal nigrostriatal dopaminergic neuron development, but it has been shown that it plays an important role in the early postnatal development. Also, it was shown that reduced GDNF/GFRα1/Ret signaling compromises nigrotriatal dopaminergic system in heterozygous GDNF/GFRα1/Ret knockout mice. However the physiological roles of endogenous GDNF and its signalling in the nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons are not very well understood. In the experimental part of my master -thesis I studied how reduced endogenous GDNF signaling affects the dopaminergic system after 6-OHDA induced neurotoxicity in the conventional heterozygous GDNF mice. Besides that I examined the effects of elevated endogenous GDNF on dopaminergic system of 7 days old so-called GDNF hypermorphs mice. The effects of reduced endogenous GFRα1 levels on dopaminergic system of 20 days old GFRα1 hypomorphs have also been studied. The obtained date showed that mice with the reduced levels of endogenous GDNF are not more susceptible to the 6-OHDA induced neurotoxicity than the wild type littermates. Elevated endogenous GDNF levels did not affect early postnatal development of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic system in GDNF hypermorphs mice as revealed by normal intensity of TH staining in striatum and normal number of TH-positive cells in the substantia nigra pars compacta. Reduced levels of endogenous GFRα1 levels did not affect monoamine levels in the striatum of GFRα1 hypomorph mice.

Cortical stroke induces a chain of events that results in secondary injury in the ipsilateral thalamus. Inflammation is a key player in the delayed injury. Microglia, the resident innate immune cells of the brain, seem to have an important role in the initiation and maintenance of the inflammation. After infarct they are rapidly activated and start to proliferate and release proinflammatory cytokines. They may even phagocytose viable neurons, a phenomenon called "phagoptosis". Many studies, which have aimed at inhibition of the the detrimental function of microglia, suggest that inhibition of microglia might offer promising therapeutical targets. However, microglia are also involved in the resolution and the repair phase after infarct, which makes development of novel therapies challenging. The only approved treatment for ischemic stroke, a fibrinolytic agent, has a very narrow therapeutic time window. Thus, new treatments are urgently needed. Modulation of inflammation may offer a wider therapeutic time window. In this study, we investigated the effects of two potentially neurotrophic factors, CDNF (cerebral dopamine neurotrophic factor) and MANF (mesencephalic astrocyte-derived neurotrophic factor), as well as a specific vitronectin receptor blocker, cRGDfV, on the prevention of neuronal death in thalamus in a transient murine cortical stroke model. MANF and CDNF are proteins released during stress of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). They have been shown to protect neurons during ER stress and to reduce the production of some proinflammatory mediators. The vitronectin receptor blocker has in vitro inhibited microglial phagoptosis. The treatments were administered as single injections to the thalamus 7 days after the stroke onset. CDNF and MANF alleviated functional deficits, but did not protect thalamic neurons from death or affect the accumulation of phagocytic microglia. cRGDfV neither enhanced functional outcome nor protected neurons from death. The mechanisms of action were not investigated. In addition, we investigated, whether the death of thalamic neurons in the cortical stroke results in sensitization to pain. Central post-stroke pain has been reported on stroke patients and it has been associated with the death or the disturbances in the function of thalamic neurons. However, in spite of significant reduction in the number of neurons in the ipsilateral thalamus and the increase in the accumulation of phagocytic microglia on day 30 after stroke, we did not observe any significant sensitization to pain caused by thermal or mechanical stimuli on days 3, 14 and 28 after stroke. In conclusion, transient ischemic cortical stroke doesn't seem to induce sensitization to pain. MANF and CDNF seem to alleviate functional deficiencies, but they do not protect thalamic neurons from delayed death.