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Background. Birth asphyxia is a pathological state that occurs if fetal gas exchange is disrupted for an extended period of time during delivery. Prolonged birth asphyxia causes brain damage and can even lead to death, but which in mild and moderate cases causes motor and cognitive disability. One of the brain regions often damaged is the hippocampus, which is known to play a major role in memory processing. Thus, damage to the hippocampus may in part explain the long-term cognitive consequences of birth asphyxia. In the neonatal brain hippocampal network activity is discontinuous, dominated by sharp waves and oscillatory bouts, of which the former are thought to be important for memory consolidation in the adult brain. Later in development sharp waves exhibit fast oscillations called ripples that organise hippocampal activity after learning. The aim of this thesis was to establish how sharp wave signalling in the neonatal hippocampus is affected by birth asphyxia. Methods. A rat model developed at the Laboratory of Neurobiology, University of Helsinki, was used to study birth asphyxia and a putative therapeutic strategy. Neonatal rat pups aged 5-8 days were used in the study. These animals were randomly assigned to one of four experimental groups: naive control, sham control, asphyxia, and graded restoration of normocapnia. Hippocampal network activity was measured in vivo under urethane anaesthesia using local field potential (LFP) recordings 24 hours after the asphyxic insult. Sharp waves were detected and analysed in terms of event counts, timing, size, shape and ripple properties. Results and conclusions. After asphyxia, sharp waves occurred more frequently within clusters than in isolation. In addition, sharp wave ripples were detected for the first time during early neonatal development. In asphyxiated animals, the number and magnitude of detected ripples was statistically significantly decreased. Interestingly, animals that underwent graded restoration of normocapnia after asphyxia were no different from controls, suggesting a protective effect of the treatment. The abnormal SPW development after birth asphyxia may form a mechanism contributing to the emergence of cognitive deficits.

Background. Birth asphyxia is a pathological state that occurs if fetal gas exchange is disrupted for an extended period of time during delivery. Prolonged birth asphyxia causes brain damage and can even lead to death, but which in mild and moderate cases causes motor and cognitive disability. One of the brain regions often damaged is the hippocampus, which is known to play a major role in memory processing. Thus, damage to the hippocampus may in part explain the long-term cognitive consequences of birth asphyxia. In the neonatal brain hippocampal network activity is discontinuous, dominated by sharp waves and oscillatory bouts, of which the former are thought to be important for memory consolidation in the adult brain. Later in development sharp waves exhibit fast oscillations called ripples that organise hippocampal activity after learning. The aim of this thesis was to establish how sharp wave signalling in the neonatal hippocampus is affected by birth asphyxia. Methods. A rat model developed at the Laboratory of Neurobiology, University of Helsinki, was used to study birth asphyxia and a putative therapeutic strategy. Neonatal rat pups aged 5-8 days were used in the study. These animals were randomly assigned to one of four experimental groups: naive control, sham control, asphyxia, and graded restoration of normocapnia. Hippocampal network activity was measured in vivo under urethane anaesthesia using local field potential (LFP) recordings 24 hours after the asphyxic insult. Sharp waves were detected and analysed in terms of event counts, timing, size, shape and ripple properties. Results and conclusions. After asphyxia, sharp waves occurred more frequently within clusters than in isolation. In addition, sharp wave ripples were detected for the first time during early neonatal development. In asphyxiated animals, the number and magnitude of detected ripples was statistically significantly decreased. Interestingly, animals that underwent graded restoration of normocapnia after asphyxia were no different from controls, suggesting a protective effect of the treatment. The abnormal SPW development after birth asphyxia may form a mechanism contributing to the emergence of cognitive deficits.

There is very little research on the effects of memory illnesses such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) on the linguistic performance of congenitally deaf sign language users. With spoken language users the effects of AD are often first found in semantics and pragmatics. Deteriorated naming skills are often an early symptom of AD. As the disease progresses the linguistic skills are widely affected and communicating becomes difficult. When studying sign language users results have shown that people with AD have corresponding difficulties of comprehending and producing signed language as spoken language users with Dementia have with spoken language. The aim of this research was to study how two Finnish Sign Language (FSL) users with AD perform in object and action naming tests. The participants were evaluated with the Boston Naming Test (BNT) and the Action Naming Test (ANT) in two consecutive years. Of each performance, the researcher recorded the total score, the number of immediate answers, the time the participant spent on the task and how the answers were given. An analysis of naming errors was made. As a result it was noted that both object and action naming skills of the participants deteriorated as Dementia progressed. Action naming skill were less affected than object naming skill. The participants made more errors and gave less immediate responses in the BNT than in the ANT. Both the signed responses and the method of answering varied with the FSL users with a memory illness: the answers were given either in varying signs, by speaking only or by both speaking and signing simultaneously, or with signs created spontaneously in test situation. Most of the errors were Other errors, especially "I don't know" –answers in both tests. As a result of this study it is clear that there is a need for assessment tests which have been translated into sign language, since the existing naming tests are not necessarily suitable for testing signed language users without a culturally-sensitive translation. This study is the first longitudinal study in Finland focusing on evaluating Finnish Sign Language users with Dementia and the changes in their linguistic skills. It is also one of the first studies internationally on the linguistic changes of sign language users with a memory illness.

There is very little research on the effects of memory illnesses such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) on the linguistic performance of congenitally deaf sign language users. With spoken language users the effects of AD are often first found in semantics and pragmatics. Deteriorated naming skills are often an early symptom of AD. As the disease progresses the linguistic skills are widely affected and communicating becomes difficult. When studying sign language users results have shown that people with AD have corresponding difficulties of comprehending and producing signed language as spoken language users with Dementia have with spoken language. The aim of this research was to study how two Finnish Sign Language (FSL) users with AD perform in object and action naming tests. The participants were evaluated with the Boston Naming Test (BNT) and the Action Naming Test (ANT) in two consecutive years. Of each performance, the researcher recorded the total score, the number of immediate answers, the time the participant spent on the task and how the answers were given. An analysis of naming errors was made. As a result it was noted that both object and action naming skills of the participants deteriorated as Dementia progressed. Action naming skill were less affected than object naming skill. The participants made more errors and gave less immediate responses in the BNT than in the ANT. Both the signed responses and the method of answering varied with the FSL users with a memory illness: the answers were given either in varying signs, by speaking only or by both speaking and signing simultaneously, or with signs created spontaneously in test situation. Most of the errors were Other errors, especially "I don't know" –answers in both tests. As a result of this study it is clear that there is a need for assessment tests which have been translated into sign language, since the existing naming tests are not necessarily suitable for testing signed language users without a culturally-sensitive translation. This study is the first longitudinal study in Finland focusing on evaluating Finnish Sign Language users with Dementia and the changes in their linguistic skills. It is also one of the first studies internationally on the linguistic changes of sign language users with a memory illness.

It has been previously shown that people express disgust at moral transgressions, with both verbal reports and facial expressions. It is also known that the real or imagined presence of an audience can make people more willing to punish perceived wrongdoers and harsher in their judgments of moral violations. The aim of this thesis was to examine whether other people's emotional communication may affect one's moral judgments of speculative dilemma situations, where the killing or harming of another person is motivated by the greater good. Specifically, this thesis aimed to find out if an audience's facial expression affects judgments of moral violations that break a deontological (duty-based) moral rule but are nevertheless utilitarian, ie. the violation can be said to increase aggregate welfare. The hypothesis was that a disgust-signaling facial expression would lead to less utilitarian judgments than a neutral expression. Four data sets from experiments were collected in Finland and in the Netherlands. 117, 124, 124 and 165 people took part in the experiments Three of the experiments were conducted on a computer, and one on a paper form. An established questionnaire of 12 moral dilemma situations was used. In each dilemma, the utilitarian option was also a deontological violation.The participants indicated on a Likert scale I) how acceptable the found the utilitarian option and II) how likely they thought they themselves would act according to this option. Photographs of faces were used as the audience stimulus. Depending on the experimental condition, these faces were either neutral, or expressed disgust or anger. The order of the dilemmas, the photographs and the placing of participants in different experimental conditions was fully randomized. In the fourth experiment, the possible effect of the audience's gender on moral judgments was also examined. In each of the data sets, a main effect of participant gender was observed: males were slightly more utilitarian than females. An anger-signaling audience had no effect discernible from a neutral audience, whereas a disgust-signaling audience led to changes in utilitarian judgment. Additionally, interactions between the emotional audience manipulation and participant and audience gender were observed. Based on these results, it seems that gender and the expression of disgust may have specific roles in audience effects on moral judgment.

It has been previously shown that people express disgust at moral transgressions, with both verbal reports and facial expressions. It is also known that the real or imagined presence of an audience can make people more willing to punish perceived wrongdoers and harsher in their judgments of moral violations. The aim of this thesis was to examine whether other people's emotional communication may affect one's moral judgments of speculative dilemma situations, where the killing or harming of another person is motivated by the greater good. Specifically, this thesis aimed to find out if an audience's facial expression affects judgments of moral violations that break a deontological (duty-based) moral rule but are nevertheless utilitarian, ie. the violation can be said to increase aggregate welfare. The hypothesis was that a disgust-signaling facial expression would lead to less utilitarian judgments than a neutral expression. Four data sets from experiments were collected in Finland and in the Netherlands. 117, 124, 124 and 165 people took part in the experiments Three of the experiments were conducted on a computer, and one on a paper form. An established questionnaire of 12 moral dilemma situations was used. In each dilemma, the utilitarian option was also a deontological violation.The participants indicated on a Likert scale I) how acceptable the found the utilitarian option and II) how likely they thought they themselves would act according to this option. Photographs of faces were used as the audience stimulus. Depending on the experimental condition, these faces were either neutral, or expressed disgust or anger. The order of the dilemmas, the photographs and the placing of participants in different experimental conditions was fully randomized. In the fourth experiment, the possible effect of the audience's gender on moral judgments was also examined. In each of the data sets, a main effect of participant gender was observed: males were slightly more utilitarian than females. An anger-signaling audience had no effect discernible from a neutral audience, whereas a disgust-signaling audience led to changes in utilitarian judgment. Additionally, interactions between the emotional audience manipulation and participant and audience gender were observed. Based on these results, it seems that gender and the expression of disgust may have specific roles in audience effects on moral judgment.

Objectives: The present study examines everyday executive functioning in adults who have had perinatal risks related ADHD in childhood. ADHD symptoms often persist from childhood to adulthood but the long-term developmental course of ADHD beyond young adulthood is still poorly understood. The present study focuses on adults around 40 years of age who have had perinatal risk factors with subsequent onset of ADHD in childhood. The present study may advance understanding of the long-term impact of perinatal risks and childhood ADHD in adulthood. Methods: The present study is part of a larger longitudinal birth cohort research project examining long-term effects of perinatal risk factors. The cohort has been followed since 1970's. The present sample includes individuals with perinatal risks associated childhood ADHD (n = 32), individuals with perinatal risk factors without childhood ADHD (n = 158) and control individuals without perinatal risks or childhood ADHD (n = 38). Experienced everyday executive functioning was compared between these three groups using Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Functioning – Adult Version (BRIEF-A). Executive functioning was compared between the three groups using analysis of variance (ANOVAs) and non-paramentric Kruskal-Wallis test. Results and conclusions: Adults with perinatal risks related childhood ADHD reported more cognitive and behavioral executive difficulties than control adults or adults with perinatal risks without childhood ADHD. The group with perinatal risks related childhood ADHD reported executive difficulties in domains of working memory, planning, inhibition and self-monitoring. Executive problems were mild in group level, although a small proportion reported more severe clinically significant dysfunction. Adults with perinatal risks but without childhood ADHD did not differ from controls in experienced executive functioning which suggests that perinatal risks alone without early ADHD symptoms do not affect executive functioning in adulthood. It appears that childhood ADHD with perceding perinatal risk factors can have long-term but mostly mild consequences for daily executive functioning extending to mid-adulthood.

Recent evidence suggests paranormal and religious beliefs may result from cognitive biases that all humans share. People who think in an intuitive manner are supposedly more affected by these biases than analytical people. Consequently, mounting evidence suggests those who endorse intuitive thinking style tend to be more religious and have more paranormal beliefs than people with an analytic thinking style. However, less attention has been paid to people who are highly analytical but nevertheless have supernatural beliefs. Since analytical people should be less susceptible to cognitive biases, other factors such as metacognitive tendencies might account for these beliefs. On the other hand, if intuitive thinking style is a major causal factor behind paranormal beliefs, an intuitive sub-group among sceptics could be considered an anomaly. Metacognitive tendencies could be a potential psychological factor behind scepticism. A sample of nearly 3000 Finnish participants revealed that there was an analytical and intuitive subgroup among the believers and sceptics. Particularly, analytic believers had more cognitive biases and lesser tendency to belief flexibility than analytic sceptics. Intuitive sceptics had more cognitive biases than analytic sceptics but they adhered more to flexible thinking than intuitive believers. The results of this thesis underline the multifarious nature of both paranormal beliefs and thinking styles. Although analytical thinking may help the person to overcome the automatic and often erroneous shortcuts that the mind produces, it may fail to suppress overlearned and reflectively practiced beliefs. On the other hand, an intuitive thinking style and cognitive biases may not necessary lead to paranormal believing, especially if the living environment encourages a sceptic worldview. Future studies should address the mechanisms that lead individuals with similar epistemological tendencies to acquire totally different metaphysical beliefs.

Aim. Maternal attachment towards the child starts to form already during pregnancy. It is suggested that antenatal attachment increases during pregnancy and at the end of the pregnancy it is at the highest level. However, longitudinal studies of continuity in antenatal attachment are lacking. The present study aims to investigate the continuity of maternal antenatal attachment during pregnancy, the continuity of attachment from antenatal to postnatal period and the associations of maternal prenatal and postnatal depressive symptoms to both maternal antenatal and postnatal attachment. Methods. The study is part of a larger longitudinal multidisciplinary project called PREDO Project 'Prediction and Prevention of Pre-eclampsia'. The present study sample comprised 3206 singleton mother. Maternal antenatal attachment was assessed with the Maternal Antenatal Attachment Scale (MAAS) filled in at 12 and 26 weeks of gestation and postnatal attachment with the Maternal Postnatal Attachment Scale (MPAS) filled in at six months postpartum. Maternal depressive symptoms were assessed with the Center of Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale completed bi-weekly from 12 to 26 weeks of gestation and six months after the delivery. The regression analysis was used to explore the associations. We adjusted models for demographic factors and maternal depressive symptoms. In addition, the mediating effect of maternal depressive symptoms on the associations between maternal antenatal attachment at 12 and 26 gestational weeks and between antenatal and postnatal attachment were studied with Sobel test. Results and conclusions. Higher level of maternal antenatal attachment at the end of the first trimester was associated with higher level of attachment at the end of the second trimester and at six months after the delivery. The maternal depressive symptoms during and after the pregnancy were negatively associated with maternal antenatal and postnatal attachment. Maternal depressive symptoms mediated the associations between antenatal attachment and between antenatal and postnatal attachment. The results indicate that maternal antenatal attachment starts to form from early on pregnancy. Maternal depressive symptoms are a significant risk-factor for maternal attachment process. Increasing awareness of the importance of enhancing mother-fetal attachment from the beginning of the pregnancy is important because it shows high continuity to the postnatal life.

Aim. Maternal attachment towards the child starts to form already during pregnancy. It is suggested that antenatal attachment increases during pregnancy and at the end of the pregnancy it is at the highest level. However, longitudinal studies of continuity in antenatal attachment are lacking. The present study aims to investigate the continuity of maternal antenatal attachment during pregnancy, the continuity of attachment from antenatal to postnatal period and the associations of maternal prenatal and postnatal depressive symptoms to both maternal antenatal and postnatal attachment. Methods. The study is part of a larger longitudinal multidisciplinary project called PREDO Project 'Prediction and Prevention of Pre-eclampsia'. The present study sample comprised 3206 singleton mother. Maternal antenatal attachment was assessed with the Maternal Antenatal Attachment Scale (MAAS) filled in at 12 and 26 weeks of gestation and postnatal attachment with the Maternal Postnatal Attachment Scale (MPAS) filled in at six months postpartum. Maternal depressive symptoms were assessed with the Center of Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale completed bi-weekly from 12 to 26 weeks of gestation and six months after the delivery. The regression analysis was used to explore the associations. We adjusted models for demographic factors and maternal depressive symptoms. In addition, the mediating effect of maternal depressive symptoms on the associations between maternal antenatal attachment at 12 and 26 gestational weeks and between antenatal and postnatal attachment were studied with Sobel test. Results and conclusions. Higher level of maternal antenatal attachment at the end of the first trimester was associated with higher level of attachment at the end of the second trimester and at six months after the delivery. The maternal depressive symptoms during and after the pregnancy were negatively associated with maternal antenatal and postnatal attachment. Maternal depressive symptoms mediated the associations between antenatal attachment and between antenatal and postnatal attachment. The results indicate that maternal antenatal attachment starts to form from early on pregnancy. Maternal depressive symptoms are a significant risk-factor for maternal attachment process. Increasing awareness of the importance of enhancing mother-fetal attachment from the beginning of the pregnancy is important because it shows high continuity to the postnatal life.