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As an alternative to complex 3D-modelling of structure, the canopy spectral invariants are a novel concept to describe the average behavior of photons in a vegetated canopy. The probabilities of canopy absorption and scattering can be summarized with only three parameters (?L, p and R): The green leaf single scattering albedo (?L) describes the wavelength-dependent probabilities of absorption for each time a photon interacts with a leaf. In the event of scattering, a photon’s probabilities of reinteraction (photon recollision probability p) and exiting the canopy in a given direction (directional escape factor R) can be described as independent of wavelength; as the size of the scattering elements is considerably larger than wavelengths in the shortwave radiation budget, p and R depend only upon the structural arrangement of the scattering elements. In this work, a recently published (2011) approach to infer remotely sensed (spaceborne) hyperspectral imagery (also referred to as imaging spectroscopy data) based on the canopy spectral invariants was tested in a case study on southern boreal forests at full leaf development. An atmospherically corrected image taken with the Hyperion imaging spectrometer aboard the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA) Earth Observing-1 (EO-1) spacecraft was interpreted with a single reference transformed green leaf scattering albedo. Transforming of a traditionally defined leaf albedo means correcting the measurements for the effect of surface reflectance, resulting in probabilities of leaf scattering and absorption given a photon interacts with the leaf internal constituents. Utilizing such transformed albedo as reference results in reference (canopy) spectral invariants describing the relative difference between the reference and the scattering properties of (theoretical) mean leaves at the scale of inference (pixel). The results of the study are parallel to those of previously published and ongoing research: In essence, even while the individual parameters p and R depend on the reference, the ratio R/(1–p) (directional escape factor to total escape probability) was found practically independent of the selection of the reference, thus implicating a possibility to develop a physically-based algorithm to infer hyperspectral imagery in vegetated areas. Moreover, the reference (canopy) spectral invariants were found as highly applicable in retrieval of forest structural properties such as dominant forest type (broadleaved, coniferous, mixed) and a quantitative estimate of the broadleaf fraction of a forest area.

Urban development can generate substantial greenhouse gas emissions through deforestation and land-use change. This underscores the urgency for effective climate change mitigation strategies. This thesis scrutinizes the feasibility of local forest conservation, specifically at a municipal level, as a strategy to compensate for losses in carbon storage and reductions in carbon sequestration linked to land-use changes. The study uses a case study approach, focusing on a proposed development of a data centre in Espoo's Hepokorvenkallio area in Finland. The proposed construction site spans 19 hectares and consists mainly of a forest earmarked for clearance. As a possible countermeasure, the city is considering conserving the nearby Hynkänlampi forest, covering an area of 79 hectares. The study leverages empirical modelling via long-term forest simulations to assess carbon storage and sequestration dynamics for these two sites under different scenarios. For Hepokorvenkallio, the analysis compares a construction scenario with continued forest management. The findings suggest that land clearing necessary for construction could result in a carbon storage loss of 15,820 tCO2 over a century, thereby indicating a need for compensatory measures. For Hynkänlampi, the modelled forecasts propose that a conserved forest could theoretically offset these losses. However, the offset capacity is notably influenced by the chosen discount rates applied to the carbon storage values. While simulation results for Hynkänlampi indicate a buffer capacity exceeding 10,000 tCO2 with a 0% discount rate, this buffer decreases to approximately 5,800 tCO2 with a 1% discount rate. Beyond the numerical aspects of carbon accounting, the thesis also addresses existing uncertainties and the prevailing regulatory landscape for carbon accounting procedures. Considering Finland's current legal and regulatory framework, the interpretation of this study posits that Espoo could view forest conservation at Hynkänlampi as a viable carbon offsetting measure to mitigate the impacts of land clearing at Hepokorvenkallio.

The intensification of milk production has increased the size of farms and reduced the use of pastures in recent decades worldwide. The interest in farm animal welfare and the climate impact of dairy products is growing. Offering dairy cows full-time pasture access has declined, but there are other possibilities to provide outdoor access for dairy cows. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of two outdoor management systems on the feeding behaviors and productivity of lactating dairy cows. This study was conducted at the University of Helsinki research barn’s freestall and adjacent pastureland in Viikki. The experimental design was a replicated 3x3 Latin square. Twenty-seven Ayrshire cows were divided into nine squares. During the experiment, cows went through three 21-day periods. Cows in squares were assigned to the following treatments: partial access to pasture with sufficient forage for grazing (pasture), partial access to pasture without grazeable forage (paddock), and indoor confinement. Milk yield and ECM were greater in the paddock than in the pasture treatment. Part-time grazing led to an energy deficit because pasture cows had the lowest milk yield. Outdoor access reduced the content of saturated fatty acids and increased the content of monounsaturated fatty acids in milk. Pasture cows spent 30% of their outdoor time eating and paddock cows 27%. Paddock cows used 15% of their total eating time eating TMR and 12% attempting to graze. Pasture cows ruminated the most between 12:00 a.m. and 6:00 p.m., and indoor cows ruminated more than outdoor cows between 7:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m. Outdoor cows ruminated more than indoor cows from 6:00 p.m. to 11:00 p.m. The cows on the pasture produced less methane per day than the paddock cows. However, methane production in g/kg ECM was not different among groups. According to this study, grazing seems to be a motivating activity for dairy cows. Providing TMR outdoors can be beneficial for the welfare of dairy cows because it enables a choice between feeds and helps to maintain milk yields. Partial outdoor access changed the diurnal pattern of rumination but not the total time used for rumination. There were no differences in milk’s polyunsaturated fatty acid contents between treatments, but eating fresh grass modified the cow’s milk to be healthier.

Field work is needed to obtain reliable estimates when forest inventories are carried out. Field measurements traditionally have been the main source of information for inventories. But nowadays, also remotely sensed data collected using active or passive sensors mounted on satellite and aerial platforms are used to help in the estimation of forest parameters. Although the use of remotely sensed data is of great help in forest inventories, field data still plays a very important role as reference data, for results calibration and accuracy assessments. Considering that time and budget required for field work are generally some of the main concerns in forest inventory planning, the development of faster, cheaper, simpler, more accurate or more reliable field inventory methods and tools is a topic of great interest. TrestimaTM is a forest inventory system based in the interpretation of images taken with a mobilephone. Its accuracy and efficiency in estimating forest parameters was studied using sample plots in Russian. A total of 156 field plots were measured. The forest parameters measured were: the plot basal area and sample trees’ diameters and heights. The data collected with Trestima was meant to replicate a typical relascope sample plot inventory (variable radius plot inventory). Measurements obtained using traditional tools were used as reference data. The data collected for the inventory included plots at forest stands with different structures: from young to mature stands; and mixed stands to stands dominated by different species (most often Norway Spruce, Picea abies, (L.) H. Karst). The plots’ basal areas ranged from 7 to 62 m2/ha, the tree diameters from 3 to 60 cm and the tree heights from 3 to 35 m. The time used to measure the plots with the Trestima and the reference methods were collected. The data for each forest variable and the time invested in taking the measurements were organized as paired samples and compared using the statistic estimators of bias and RMSE, as the paired Student's t-test. Compared to the reference measurements, Trestima underestimated the basal area with a bias of 1.2 m2/ha (3.7%), but the differences were not statistically significant. In mixed stands, Trestima overestimated spruce basal area (bias of 13.9%), but for spruce dominated stands underestimated it (bias of 4.9%). Trestima overestimated tree diameters with a root mean squared error (RMSE) from 5.5 to 7.9%, depending on the tree species. but underestimated tree heights with an average RMSE of 3.7m (17.5%). The Trestima sample plot measurements were done faster than with traditional tools. Trestima measurements were in average 1.6 minutes (14.8%) faster. The Trestima system provided results comparable to the reference method for all the measured forest parameters. The worse results were obtained for the measurement of the tree heights. The interpretation of the results for the basal area, indicated that the system could benefit from taking into consideration stand structure, especially for species specific estimations. Trestima provided faster measurements of the forest parameters. One important advantage, is that Trestima produces automatically geographically referenced data, which can be used during later analysis, for example, interpretation of remotely sensed data or forest planning.

Late blight, caused by Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) de Bary, is considered the most devastating disease in potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) production worldwide. Control methods involve mostly the use of fungicides, which are costly and are under political pressure for reduction in Europe. Potatoes from the major potato cultivar in Sweden, King Edward, previously stacked with three resistance (R) genes (RB, Rpi-blb2 and Rpi-vnt1.1) were tested in a local Swedish field, with spontaneous P. infestans infection over three seasons to evaluate the effectiveness and stability of the resistance on leaves. In addition, testing of resistance was done in both in leaves and tubers. Field results demonstrated that the 3R stacked into the cultivar King Edward, showed practically full resistance to infections of P. infestans, with no difference to fungicide use. Moreover, the resistance was effective in both leaves and tubers. The results reveal the 3R potatoes offer a functional field resistance, that could, alone, reduce the total use of fungicides in agriculture by several percent in Sweden, in an event of modifications in the EU legislation.

The Oxford Nanopore MinION is a third generation sequencer utilizing nanopore sequencing technology. The nanopore sequencing method allows sequencing of either DNA or RNA strands as they pass through the membrane-embedded nanopores. By measuring the corresponding fluctuations in the ion flow passing through the nanopore the passing strands can be sequenced directly without additional second-hand reactions or measurements. The MinION sequencing has very distinctly different characteristics compared to the market leaders of the sequencing field. The small form factor of the device further helps it to separate itself from the other alternatives. However, the technology has only been on the market for a very short time and thus very little golden standards regarding its capabilities or usage have been established. This thesis describes our experiences testing the capabilities of the MinION sequencer both before its commercial release as a part of a special early access program, as well as our continued experiments with the device following its commercial launch. The main results of this study include successfully sequencing and aligning E.coli and human gDNA samples to their respective reference genomes. Using our sequencing and analysis pipeline specifically tuned to the MinION we were able to sequence the entire E.coli genome on a single MinION flow cell with an average depth of around 180. Over the course of the thesis project the MinION sequencing protocol was evaluated and optimized in order to determine whether it has the potential to achieve our ultimate goal of reliably sequencing the previously inaccessible genomic regions of the human genome. The possibility of augmenting the sequencing protocol by adding the pre-sequencing target enrichment was also explored. Ultimately we were able to confirm that the MinION sequencer can be used to sequence long DNA fragments from a multitude of sample types. The majority of the produced reads could successfully be aligned against a reference genome. However, the limited yield and sequencing quality of a single experiment does limit the applicability of the method for more complicated genomic studies. These issues can be addressed with various techniques, chiefly target enrichment, but adapting such methods into the sequencing pipeline has its own challenges.

This study examined whether dairy processors and retailers have market power in the Finnish dairy chain, and the analysis was limited to the wholesale and the retail market of dairy products. The study of industrial organization and new empirical industrial organization provided methodological framework for the study. Market power has been extensively studied in other dairy chains but attempts to estimate market power in the Finnish dairy chain are few. Market power in the Finnish dairy chain has not been examined with a bilateral oligopoly approach before. The approach allows relaxing the presumptions about price taking. Because the dairy processing and the retail sector in Finland are highly concentrated, presumptions about price taking would have been too restrictive. The results indicate that retailers have market power over consumers but the wholesale market is competitive. According to the results, retailers employ full mark-up in the retail market, and the market is thus characterized by collusive behavior. A need for further research is emphasized. Because the current evidence is scarce, cumulative evidence through further research would be needed.

Despite much scholarly attention given to values and preferences toward the environment, comparatively few studies have examined the spatial relationships between relational values and more established concepts including instrumental and intrinsic values, self-reported knowledge of natural resource management issues, and perceived landscape threats. This study examines these context-based relationships using public participation geographic information systems (PPGIS) survey techniques. An online PPGIS survey was administered during the summer of 2019 to 1,200 residents in Mjölby kommun in Sweden, a community heavily reliant upon silvo-pastoral landscape use. A total of 301 responses were obtained, resulting in a 25.1% response rate. Spatial association and statistical analyses tests were conducted to examine the relationships between different categories of values, self-reported knowledge of natural resource management issues, and values and preferences for landscape threat management. Results indicate that socio-demographics alone have little to no significant impact on how many value points of any category are associated with the environment; however, significant differences in the spatial distribution of values were found by gender and self-reported knowledge of forestry, agriculture, and native biodiversity. Male respondents tended to assign instrumental values in more diverse areas across the landscape. Respondents who rated themselves as knowledgeable about biodiversity tended to assign relational values inside Natura 2000 sites, while those who rated themselves as knowledgeable about forestry avoided placing instrumental values in Natura 2000 sites. Contrary to expectations, instrumental values were the most evenly dispersed across the landscape, while intrinsic values were more concentrated in specific areas, and relational values were the most concentrated around the towns of Mjölby, Skänninge, and Mantorp. High degrees of spatial overlap were found between intrinsic and relational values, implying these value types may be conceptually similar for residents. Future PPGIS research could focus on smaller regions such as those at the municipal or regional level to more precisely identify the context-specific relationships between instrumental, relational and intrinsic values and natural resource management preferences in the local landscape.

This study was conducted with the participation of HOAS and AYY residents at the two biggest Universities in the Helsinki metropolitan area (HMA), Finland. A total of 187 residents took part in an online survey. The aim of the study is to investigate the association between experiences of nature, environmental identity, and environmental concern. This master’s thesis explores how the experiences of nature (EoN) defined by Clayton and others (2017), as well as the environmental identity, determined by Clayton (2003), were associated with environmental concern. The survey consisted of questions about environmental identity and experiences of nature. The self-estimation about the environmental concern was also taken into consideration. The data were analyzed both via quantitative and qualitative methods, so mixed methods were applied in this study. Factor analysis from multivariate methods was conducted as a part of the quantitative analysis. Content analysis with topic modeling was performed as part of the qualitative analysis. Survey results from the quantitative analysis showed that the residents of HOAS and AYY experience nature mostly as integrated into their daily lives and routines. Yet, the qualitative analysis revealed that more complex nature connections were experienced during vacation times such as leisure time activities (e.g., boating and trekking). Also, experiences of nature are themed under three themes using the results of the factor analysis. Overall, the survey participants were very concerned about the environmental crisis, and they showed a very strong environmental identity. The correlation between EoN and environmental concern was the weakest, and there were stronger correlations between environmental identity and EoN or environmental concern. The result of this study supports Clayton’s (2003) theoretical model that there is a connection between environmental identity and environmental concern.

The concept of bioeconomy has been harnessed to support societies and their economies to produce value added products from renewable biological resources and to develop circular economy. Such systems require actions from a variety of actors from public and private sectors to consumers. As a heavily forested country Finland’s bioeconomy leans largely on the utilization of forests. Planned pulp and paper industry investments call for end-uses for logs to balance out the wood supply. Both forests and the construction sector are also focal areas in climate change mitigation. Wooden multistorey construction (WMC) and its capability to store carbon has been suggested as a partial solution to the aforementioned issues. The aim of this study is to investigate the relation of WMC and the bioeconomy and the role of end-users in WMC. This explorative study uses qualitative research methods to address its research ques-tions. The data consists of seven focus group interviews conducted in the metropolitan area of Helsinki between September 2017 and February 2019. The interviewed groups, with altogether 26 participants, included an academic expert group, three market actor groups (firm representatives, architects and property managers) and three wooden multistorey resident groups. The residents’ type of housing included rental, owner-occupancy and right-of-occupancy and the buildings were built between 2015 and 2017. Thematization was used for data analysis. Results of the study show that despite Finland’s close-knit relation to its forests and traditions in utiliz-ing wood, WMC is not currently perceived culturally embedded as part of the society nor the construc-tion industry. WMC is still a niche in the country and it also seems more connected to mechanical wood industry than the construction industry. WMC was associated with the bioeconomy by non-resident groups, although experts recognized also potential pitfalls in the current discourse. Percep-tions that were aligned with the general discourse of the bioeconomy are mainly related to material renewability, possibilities to recycle wooden construction material, wood products capabilities to store carbon, and Finland’s relatively abundant forest resources. Despite WMC’s publicly declared role in the bioeconomy programmes, some underlying features make its rationale challenging for consumers, which could turn out to be a hindrance for WMC growth in the future. Generally, experts, firm represent-atives and architects were pro-wood and considered that WMC is still being unjustly stigmatized by various actors. In accordance with previous studies, the interviewed WMC residents were satisfied with their apart-ments and the building as such. A wooden frame does not seem to surpass traditional housing prefer-ences of consumers, but it is perceived as a benefit when choosing housing. Results of this study are much in line with previous findings, which indicate that environmental aspects matter, but not as much as health or other more personal aspects of living. Wood can be sensed in the building and apart-ments, which is perceived positively. However, the prevailing fire safety legislation, which was consid-ered as too strict, constrains the use of wood on visible surfaces in interiors. WMC seems to have an environmentally friendly image among residents, which however calls for better communication.