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Within the context of recent concerns over environmental problems of food production, animal welfare, and producer’s low status in the food chain, food quality is of increasing importance among Finnish consumers. As a solution alternative food networks including direct selling aim to reform the relationship between producers and consumers. The main focus of pasture meat is the grazing of semi-natural grasslands. Grazing increases biodiversity, animal welfare, and meat quality. Most of the pasture meat is sold at the farm. The aim of this study is to explore how the quality of pasture meat is constructed in direct selling at farms in consumers’ point of view. A qualitative focus group method was used since it allows interactive discussions focused on a single topic. The data were collected from three focus group meetings held in Southern and Central Finland during spring and summer 2015. Altogether 16 consumers and 5 producers participated in the focus group discussions. All farms sell pasture meat through direct selling. The material was recorded and transcribed. Data-driven analysis was used. Data were classified and theme maps, synthesis and interpretation were formed. According to the results, the quality of pasture meat in direct selling consisted of willingness to support the producer, grazing, taste, and story. The most essential quality aspects were the willingness to support the producer and having and maintaining a direct contact with the production. Perceiving quality was a complex, sensual process and based on mutual trust. All the quality aspects are linked together and socially constructed. The quality was constructed in direct contact by seeing, experiencing, tasting and discussing with the producer. Price was not an important factor. Consumers expressed their values through political consumption. Reforming Finnish food culture, quality was constructed differently in alternative food networks compared to conventional food networks.

The International Maritime Organization's sulfur emissions regulations for shipping were implemented in the European Union with the so called Sulfur Directive. According to the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL), as of January 1, 2015, in Sulfur Emission Control Areas (SECAs) the maximum sulfur content in maritime fuel is lowered to 0.1%. In Europe the Baltic Sea, the English Channel and the North Sea are declared SECAs, where the standard was previously 1.0%. The current worldwide non-SECA standard is 3.5% which will be lowered to 0.5% by 2020. This study examines the net benefits of reducing shipping-based sulfur emissions and the effect on industrial competitiveness for Finland. In order to do this, abatement costs as well as monetized health benefits related to improved air quality are calculated. The effect on competitiveness is defined by comparing the figures obtained with the hypothetical case in which the Baltic Sea had not been declared SECA and 0.5% regulation had been imposed. In this study, shipowners adapt to the regulation by switching to low-sulfur fuel or by installing a sulfur scrubber. A net present value comparison between low sulfur fuel and a sulfur scrubber is conducted individually for each ship visiting Finland and then individual costs are aggregated to industry-wide costs. Health benefits for Finland are calculated for emissions reductions applied to Baltic Sea shipping as whole. Reduced sulfur emissions lead to lowered ambient concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) which has a positive impact on human health. The analysis conducted takes into account the effect PM2.5 has on the incidences of cardiovascular disease, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and restricted activity days. These effects are measured in one figure in Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs) and monetized by multiplying by the Value of a Life Year (VOLY). The results suggest that the annual benefits of emissions reduction are expected to be circa 246 saved DALYs or monetized €12 million. The average annual abatement cost for Finland is approximately €228 million which indicates negative net benefits for the policy. Assuming that Finland will bear 100% of the costs, the same figure also represents the effect on competitiveness. When the global 0.5% cap comes into effect the impact on competitiveness decreases to an annual €93 million. The results imply that the abatement costs are lower than previously thought and the effect on competitiveness is milder than expected. A partial sensitivity analysis does not change the ratio between the costs and the benefits.

The aim of this thesis was to study differences between the yields and stability of grass mixtures and pure stands. In addition, the quality of forage was examined. Timothy cultivars which had different growth rhythms were selected for field experiments. The aim was also to examine how species proportions differ in mixtures between years and harvests and what causes observed variation. Moreover, the effect of the effective temperature sum on the quantity and quality of yield was evaluated. A three year field study was carried out in Jokioisinen and Sotkamo. Plots had either pure timothy stands (Phleum pratense L. cultivars Tuure, Rhonia ja Bor 0301) or mixtures that contained 75% timothy and 25% meadow fescue (Festuca pratensis Huds. cultivars Ilmari ja Klaara). Dry yield (kg ka/ha), D-value, iNDF, NDF, protein and lignin content were determined from each harvest. In addition, botanical composition was analysed in Sotkamo. Grass mixtures had higher dry yields and they were more stable than pure stands. The difference in yileds was more significant in Sotkamo than in Jokioinen. Timothy-meadow fescue growths' NDF and iNDF were closer to desired values than pure stands', but with other quality features weren't discovered advantages. In Sotkamo timothy cultivar's and type's (southern or north) dry yield, D-value, NDF, protein content and botanical composition reacted differently with the effective temperature sum. In Jokioinen the yield and quality of varieties reacted similarly with the effectice temperature sum. All timothy cultivars benefited occasionally from adding a meadow fescue to the mixture but not consistently. Year and harvest affected to the species proportions in the mixtures. Also the effective temperature sum had a correlation with yield and quality. According to the results cultivating grass mixtures instead of pure stands is a good way to achieve bigger dry yields that have high quality.

The aim of this work was to collect information about the effects of enzymatic lactose hydrolysis to the structure of yoghurt. The literature part of the study deals with the hydrolysed yoghurt components such as milk, lactic acid bacteria and lactases, lactose intolerance, yoghurt production and the concepts of defining a good structure of yoghurt. The factors influencing the structure of the fat-free and hydrolysed yoghurt is also mentioned. In the experimental part the influences of hydrolysis and the certain lactase to the structure of yoghurt was studied. Purpose of the experimental part of the work was to study on the influence of certain hydrolysis methods and certain lactases on the structure of yoghurt. First of all the optimum solid nonfat content of the hydrolysed and unhydrolysed yoghurt was defined. Three different solid non fat contents in yoghurt were studied and the one showing best viscosity differences between hydrolysed and unhydrolysed yoghurt was chosen for further tests. In the follow-up studies the lactose was hydrolysed using three different methods and four different lactases in a manner, that two methods was made with the same lactase and the third method was made using three different lactases. Both chemical and microbial souring agents were used in the yoghurt production. The samples were examined at the moment of fermenting the yoghurt to seven day old yoghurts. During the acidification of the yoghurts the amounts of lactic acid bacteria, acidification and the titrable acidification rate, tyrosine equivalent-, glucose-, galactose and lactose contents were measured and during the seven days viscosity and whey separation were defined. For the result there was differences in the structure of the hydrolysed and unhydro-lysed yoghurts which could occur because of the lactose hydrolysis. There was also differences in lactases used so both the lactose hydrolysis method and lactase used may affect significantly the structure of the yoghurt.

Linear scoring of livestock and farm animals has been in use since the 1980’s. In Europe, the first linear evaluations in horse breeding were conducted in 1989. In Finland, the linear evaluation was introduced into breeding evaluation of warmblood horses in 2015. So far, there is only a limited amount of research available about the heritabilities calculated from linear evaluation. Some of the studies have shown that the judge has a statistically significant effect on the linear conformation evaluation of the horse. The heritabilites from these studies have varied within different researches. The highest siginificant heritabilities have been found for conformation traits. For now, only warmblood horses are being evaluated linearly in Finland. The aim of this study was to estimate the heritabilities of the leg and movement traits from show data between 2015 – 2019 and to estimate the genetic correlations between different traits. All in all 26 traits were analyzed in the study. There were 915 horses in the data. Observations were gathered from 29 different shows in Finland. Both geldings, mares and stallions were represented in the data, mares being the largest group of gender. From one singular age group, the two – year- old mares had the greatest amount of observations. Based on the year of birth, horses born in 2015 had the most observations. The year of birth did not, however, have any significance on the results. Both the age and the gender of the horse did have a statistic significance on the results. Also the location of the show and the year of observation had some significance. Heritibilities of leg traits based on this data were extremely low, ranging between 0,00 – 0,11. The heritabilities of type and movement traits ranged between 0,00 and 0,28. Standard errors of heritabilities ranged between 0,09 – 0,14. Genetic correlations between the traits ranged between weak to strong. Standard errors of genetic correlations ranged between 0,04 – 0,13. To get reliable heritability parameters, more data and research is needed about the linear scoring of horses.

Tutkielman tavoitteena oli suunnitella ja toteuttaa passiivisilla lämmönvaihtimilla toimiva ja kustannustehokas lämmön talteenottojärjestelmä viljankuivaamoon. Lisäksi tavoitteena oli selvittää lämmönvaihtimien toimintaa viljankuivauksen olosuhteissa. Tärkeimpänä tavoit-teena oli selvittää järjestelmän energiansäästö sekä sen kannattavuus. Lähes kaikki Suomessa korjattava viljasato pitää säilöä jotenkin ja kuivaaminen läm-minilmaeräkuivurilla on yleisin säilömistapa. Vilja kuivataan 14 prosentin alapuolelle, jotta mikrobien toimintakyky heikkenee viljassa. Lämminilmakuivauksessa viljassa oleva vesi pyritään saamaan viljan läpi kulkevan lämpimän ilman mukaan. Kuivurista virtaava pois-toilma sisältää lämmintä ilmaa ja veden höyrystymislämpöä, joka on sitoutuneena vesi-höyryyn. Kuivurin poistoilman mukana suuri määrä energiaa menetetään täysin hukkaan. Läm-mönvaihtimien avulla osa poistoilman energiasta olisi mahdollista siirtää kuivurin imuil-maan. Roskainen ja kostea poistoilma asettaa omat vaatimuksensa lämmönvaihtimille. Ai-kaisemmin passiivisella lämmön talteenottojärjestelmällä tehdyissä kokeissa on päästy noin 15 – 25 % energian säästöön. Kokeet ovat tehty kuitenkin pienoiskuivureilla, joten käytän-nön kokoluokan kokeet olivat välttämättömät toimivuuden todistamiseksi. Kuivauskokeissa päästiin passiivisen lämmön talteenottojärjestelmän avulla keskimäärin noin 17 % energian säästöön. Säästyvän energian osuus vaihteli hyvin paljon kuivauksen eri vaiheissa sekä erilaisissa olosuhteissa. Kuivauskokeiden olosuhteet olivat keskimääräistä epäsuotuisammat tätä suuremman energian säästön saavuttamiseksi. Lämmönvaihtimet toimivat tehokkaasti pitäen hyötysuhteen korkeana kaikissa kuivauskokeissa. Lämmön-vaihtimet likaantuivat hieman kuivauskokeiden aikana. Lämmön talteenottojärjestelmän investoinnista on mahdollista saada kannattava. Energian hinnan noustessa myös lämmön talteenoton kannattavuus nousee.

Yersinia enterocolitica is an important zoonotic food-borne pathogen which in Finland is reported to be the cause of hundreds of gastroenteritis cases a year. The species is very heterogenic and comprises of both highly virulent and harmless apathogenic strains. The sources of Y. enterocolitica infection and the reservoirs of pathogenic strains are not yet well-known. In this work, 91 Y. enterocolitica isolates from 39 domestic sheep were characterized using different phenotypic and genotypic methods. Three different biotypes were identified: usually harmless environmental biotype 1A, a common enteropathogenic biotype 2 and a rare pathogenic biotype 5. All biotype 2 and 5 strains carried chromosomal ail, inv, myfA and ystA genes, and plasmid borne virulence genes yadA and virF. Biotype 1A isolates carried several chromosomal virulence genes, Notably also the ail which has a strong correlation with Y. enterocolitica pathogenicity. In pathogenic biotypes, only natural resistance to antimicrobials was detected. In PFGE-analysis, biotype 1A had several genotypes, whereas strains belonging to biotypes 2 or 5 showed only a limited amount of variation. ail and gyrB genes were partially sequenced from a selection of strains, both of which revealed variation between different biotypes. This study indicates that sheep are a reservoir for pathogenic Y. enterocolitica in Finland. Without further analysis the link between sheep and human illness cannot yet be established.

The literature review was concerned with colourful vegetables and the most common pigments in vegetables: carotenoids, anthocyanins, betalaines and chlorophyll. In addition, how thermal treatments affect these pigments and the structure of vegetable was reviewed. The aim of the experimental work was to investigate the effect of thermal treatments on the colour, pigments and texture of carrots and beet-roots. Seven coloured carrot cultivars and four coloured beet-root cultivars were examined. Three different kinds of thermal treatments were applied to the samples: blanching, boiling and steaming. Orange and purple carrots contained the highest amounts of carotenoids. The total carotenoid content of the carrots increased due to the thermal treatments. Purple carrots were the only carrots which contained anthocyanins. Anthocyanin stability is pH dependent: boiling in slightly acidic water had a minor impact on anthocyanin content than boiling in pure water. Red beet was the most betalain-rich beet-root. Other cultivars contained remarkably less betalaines. Betalain content decreased due to the thermal treatments. Betalain degradation due to the thermal treatments was detected as the pigment content and colour changed. Thermal treatments softened the vegetable structure. Thermal treatment improves the extraction of the pigments from the vegetable structure, which was detected as the increase in pigment concentration, leading to an enhancement of bioavailability of pigments. However, long thermal treatments cause pigment degradation and reduce the nutritional value of the vegetables.

Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan lannoitteiden kansainvälistä kauppaa, erityisesti lannoitteiden tuontiin vaikuttavia tekijöitä. Tutkimuksen kohteena ovat typpi-, fosfori- ja kaliumlannoitteiden tuontiin vaikuttavat tekijät kolmessa erityyppisessä maaryhmässä: 1) maat, joissa on korkea tulotaso 2) maat, joissa toteutettiin vihreä vallankumous vuosina 1965-1995 3) maat, jotka eivät ole läpikäyneet vihreää vallankumousta. Lisäksi pyrittiin selvittämään, mitkä tekijät selittävät lannoitteiden tuonnin eroja eri maaryhmien välillä ja toisaalta, eroavatko tuontikysyntään vaikuttavat tekijät lannoitetyypeittäin eri maissa. Tutkimusmenetelmänä käytettiin ekonometristä estimointia ja analyysitekniikkana log-lineaarista regressiomallia. Tutkimuksessa estimoitiin typpilannoitteista urean ja kaliumlannoitteista kaliumkloridin tuontikysyntä kolmessa erityyppisessä maassa. Urean tuontikysyntämallit muodostettiin Yhdysvalloille, Brasilialle ja Togolle. Kaliumkloridin tuontikysyntämallit tehtiin puolestaan Yhdysvalloille, Brasilialle ja Kamerunille. Tarkastelut koskivat pääsääntöisesti vuosia 1962–2009. Lannoitteiden tuontia selittäviksi muuttujiksi valittiin seuraavat tekijät: maan kansantalouden kehitys, lannoitteen maailmanmarkkinahinta, viljan maailmanmarkkinahinta, maan valuuttakurssi, viljelysmaa-ala asukasta kohti ja keinokastellun alueen osuus viljelysmaa-alasta. Estimoidut mallit sisälsivät usein autokorrelaatiota ja heteroskedastisuutta. Stationaarisuustestit paljastivat myös, että useimmat aikasarjat olivat epästationaarisia. Heteroskedastisuutta poistettiin Whiten korjattuja keskivirhe-estimaatteja käyttämällä. Autokorrelaatiota sisältävissä malleissa hyödynnettiin Cochrane-Orcutt -menetelmää. Lannoitteiden tuontia selittävät muuttujat vaihtelevat sekä verrattaessa eri maita keskenään että lannoitetyypeittäin. Useiden tilastollisesti merkitsevien muuttujien (mm. kansantalouden kehitys, viljelysmaa-ala ja keinokastelu) joustot ovat verraten suuria, mikä viittaa siihen, että lannoitteiden tuonnin vaihtelut ovat melko joustavia selittävien muuttujien muutosten suhteen. Maissa, joissa ei ole toteutettu vihreää vallankumousta, mallit eivät selitä yhtä hyvin lannoitteiden tuontiin vaikuttavia tekijöitä. Togon ja Kamerunin tuontia kuvaavien mallien selitysasteet ovat keskimäärin alhaisempia kuin kahdessa muussa maaryhmässä, joten mallin sisältämät muuttujat onnistuvat kuvaamaan tuonnin muutoksia vain osittain. Lannoitteiden ja viljan maailmanmarkkinahinnoilla ei havaittu olevan kovinkaan suurta vaikutusta lannoitteiden tuontiin. Viljan maailmanmarkkinahinnan merkitys oli kuitenkin lannoitteen hintaa suurempi. Tämä osoittaa aiempien tutkimusten tavoin, että mm. valuuttakurssi kumoaa osan maailmanmarkkinahinnan vaikutuksesta eli maailmanmarkkinahinnalla on vain osittainen vaikutus tuontihintaan. Tarkasteltaessa lannoitteiden tuontiin vaikuttavia tekijöitä, voidaan eri maaryhmien välillä havaita joitain selkeämpiä eroja. Korkean tulotason Yhdysvalloissa ja vihreän vallankumouksen läpikäyneessä Brasiliassa urean ja kaliumkloridin tuontiin ovat vaikuttaneet merkittävästi kansantalouden suopea kehitys. Tulojouston suuruus vaihtelee 0,8 ja 5,47 välillä. Lisäksi myös muut selittävät tekijät, kuten viljan hinta ja valuuttakurssi liittyvät vahvasti talouteen. Maissa, joissa ei ole toteutettu vihreää vallankumousta (Togo ja Kamerun), merkittävin selittävä muuttuja puolestaan on viljelysmaa-ala asukasta kohden.

Länsisuomenkarja on pienilukuinen populaatio, joka on altistunut sukulaistumiselle ja suku-siitosasteen nousulle. Tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli selvittää länsisuomenkarjan populaation nykytilanne laskemalla tehollinen populaatiokoko, sukusiitosasteen kehitys vuosina 1950‒2014 sekä sukusiitosasteen muutos sukupolvea kohden eri ajanjaksoina. Lisäksi tavoitteena oli tarkastella vanhojen 1960‒80-luvulla syntyneiden sonnien käytön vaikutusta populaati-on perinnölliseen tasoon sekä sukulaistumisen ja sukusiitoksen rajoittamiseen. Populaatioparametrien laskennassa käytettiin sovelluksia RelaX2 ja EVA. Länsisuo-menkarjan teholliseksi populaatiokooksi saatiin 103, mikä on suositusten (50‒100) rajoissa. Niin ikään sukusiitosasteen muutos sukupolvea kohden vuosina 1950‒2014 oli 0,58 %, mikä on suositusten rajoissa (0,5‒1 %). Kuitenkin sukusiitosasteen muutos sukupolvea kohden viime vuosikymmeninä on ollut hieman yli suositusten (1,2 %). Länsisuomenkarjan populaation keskimääräinen sukusiitosaste on noussut tasaisesti vuodesta 1970 alkaen. Sonneista, joilla vielä on annoksia varastossa, alhaisimmat sukulaisuudet nuoriin naarai-siin olivat seuraavilla sonneilla: Ryhti 0,22 %, Viinamäen Akvaviitti 0,33 % ja Lehmon-niemen Aromi 0,49 %. Suurimmat geneettiset kontribuutiot nykyiseen sukupolveen olivat seuraavilla sonneilla: Opari 15,0 %, Tahto 12,6 % ja Pennalan Vekkuli 9,8 %. Simuloitu vanhojen sonnien käyttö parituksissa sai aikaan keskimääräisen sukulaisuuden laskun sekä sukusiitosasteen nousun hidastumisen. Vanhojen sonnien käytöllä oli kuitenkin odotettu negatiivien vaikutus perinnölliseen edistymiseen (kokonaisjalostusarvoon). Lyhyellä aikajänteellä tarkasteltuna länsisuomenkarjan populaatio vaikuttaisi olevan suhteellisen hyvässä tilassa. Kuitenkin sukusiitosasteen nousu saattaa uhata populaation monimuotoisuutta pitkällä tähtäimellä. Vanhojen sonnien harkittu käyttö kahden tai kol-men uuden nuorsonnin tuottamiseksi sukupolvea kohti saattaisi olla järkevä ratkaisu.