Browsing by Title
Now showing items 335-354 of 3676
-
(2016)The study analyses the widening scope of competition law in the area of intellectual property rights law and the risk factors of compulsory licensing remedy for the intellectual property rights owners at European Union market. The subject of current thesis is interesting as despite the great amount of legal literature discussing the topic it still remains a controversial and developing area of European Union competition law. Intellectual property owner operating in Europe should take advantage of knowledge of the Court of Justice of the European Union case law on compulsory licensing cases to protect its commercial interests and assess the risks of European Commission and Member States court’s to be convinced that a compulsory license is the appropriate remedy if parties will not reach the agreement on licensing through their own negotiations. The refusal to license has been considered to be an abuse of a dominant position regulated under the Article 102 of the Treaty of the Functioning the European. The EU authorities have developed a list of “exceptional circumstances” for finding a refusal to license as an abuse under the Article 102 through their decisions. The Court of Justice of the European Union develops EU law by applying dynamic interpretation, thus the primary source for addressing the research topic is the case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union. The scope of this work is limited to the analysis of the most noteworthy cases in EU jurisprudence concerning the Article 102 of the TFEU and refusal to license. In some situations when IP law fails to guarantee the level of innovation in the market the competition law’s intervention may be justified as it happened e.g. in factual situation of case Magill. The landmark decision by Court of Justice is IMS Health, setting forth the legal standard applicable in the European Union today. However, European policy will be also assessed in the light of the recent European Commission decisions and General Court case law. The most recent compulsory licensing case Microsoft will be examined to analyse the policy developments and examine what test might be applied under European competition law in the future cases. In this research paper it will be examined if the competition law in Europe has graduated towards a more economic effect based approach and how the relationship between intellectual property and competition law may be seen as complementary and not as antagonistic. The different characteristics of intellectual property rights rather than “normal” property rights will be discussed according to the development of case law and analysis conducted to see what is the rationale of the new product criterion of the exceptional circumstances test. When considering the effectiveness of the jurisprudence it is necessary to take into account the need to balance the effective competition on the market and the encouragement for further innovation. The intellectual property rights protection has an important role in promoting the technological development and thus also in providing more choice for the consumers. The exceptional circumstances test created by the Court of Justice is formalistic and does not take fully into consideration the situation where intellectual property rights owner may block the innovation, however, it must be stressed that the courts are not generally well equipped to conduct the effect-based cost-benefit analysis that is necessary in order to balance the incentives of the dominant undertaking and its competitors to innovate, and such evaluation may prove to be a difficult task for the judiciary. The standards developed in case law are fact-specific and ultimately a source of uncertainty for undertakings at EU market. The study gathers together the most significant snapshots of law and assesses the possibilities where the EU jurisprudence on compulsory licensing is heading. The author concludes that the law on compulsory licensing in Europe will continue to evolve towards lesser intellectual protection to advance competition, innovation and free movement of goods, however, in spite of the widening scope of the European competition law the conditions for issuing compulsory licenses are still highly restrictive.
-
(2021)3D printing has been described as a revolutionary technology challenging copyright law to the core. 3D printing essentially enables the fast reproduction of objects and enables transforming digital items into physical ones effortlessly. This thesis examines the copyright status of a computer-aided design (CAD) file, which functions as the blueprint and instructions for a 3D printer. Such a file carries information about the design it contains, and a 3D printer may read these instructions and produce the digital item in physical, three-dimensional form. The core of this thesis is to examine whether a CAD file fits within the scope of application of copyright law and further inspects the repercussions of copyright protection being granted for such files. Moreover, the writer suggests practical interpretations and changes as to how copyright law should be interpreted for the regime to be better adapted to technological change in the future. In this thesis, the writer concludes that based on the Finnish Copyright Act (404/1961) and Directive 2001/29/EC as well as applicable case law developed by the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU), there is nothing precluding treating such a file as subject matter which may be protected under the national (and EU) copyright regime. This interpretation is in fact encouraged from the basis of applicable case by the CJEU, such as cases C-5/08 Infopaq, C-355/12 Nintendo, C-310/17 Levola and C‑683/17 Cofemel. For something to constitute protectable subject matter, the focal point is for the expression to be contained with sufficient precision and objectivity and more importantly, that the expression constitutes the intellectual creation of its author. With regard to the repercussions of this protection, it is clear that should a CAD file be protected by way of a copyright, a 3D item produced from such a file should either constitute a reproduction or derivative work of such a file. Further, the writer suggests that in order to provide a clear framework for operators in the field, a position paper similar to the one adopted by the European Communities Trade Mark Association in April 2021 as regards design law and 3D printing should be developed. In addition, it is recommended that rightholders take proactive measures in safeguarding their works by adapting business models so that their authentic products are offered by way of different licensing models to combat piracy, similar to the solution developed in the music industry after peer-to-peer online sharing posed troubles for the industry. In the event of the true mass commercialization of 3DP, a centralized body to monitor the industry should be developed, one that establishes functioning licensing models to benefit rightholders. Finally, the FCA should be interpreted in a truly technologically neutral manner. It is likely that such an interpretation will however not fix all the issues copyright law is posed with, and thus, a cohesive copyright reform may be necessary in the future.
-
(2015)Lainsäädäntötoimenpiteet sosiaalisten perusoikeuksien kuten lakko-oikeuden ja järjestäytymisoikeuden osalta eivät lähtökohtaisesti kuulu EU:n toimivaltaan. Siitä huolimatta Euroopan unionin tuomioistuimen viimeaikaiset ratkaisut asioissa Viking, Laval ja Rüffert ovat luoneet oman haasteensa sosiaalisten perusoikeuksien ja markkinavapauksien tasapainottamiselle. Näissä tapauksissa EUT tulkitsi sosiaalisten perusoikeuksien rajoittavan perusvapauksia, jota ei voitu pitää EU-oikeuden kannalta hyväksyttävänä vaikka esimerkiksi lakko-oikeudesta säätäminen kuuluu jäsenvaltioiden yksinomaiseen toimivaltaan. Tutkielma pyrkii vastaamaan siihen, kuinka lakko-oikeus osana järjestäytymisoikeutta tulisi ymmärtää ja määritellä oikeudellisena käsitteenä Eurooppalaisessa kontekstissa. Tarkoituksena on käsitteellistää lakko-oikeuteen liittyvää problematiikkaa sekä kansallisesta että EU-tason näkökulmasta ja peilata sitä EUT:n tulkintakäytäntöön ja jäsenvaltioiden kansainvälisiin velvoitteisiin. Arvion kohteena on myös se, kuinka EU-oikeuden lainvalintasäännöt vaikuttavat lakko-oikeuden harjoittamiseen unionin alueella. Tässä suhteessa perehdytään erityisesti Rooma II asetuksen 9 artiklaan. Tutkimuksen metodi on lainopillinen eli tutkimus tulkitsee ja systematisoi tietyn oikeudellisen käsitteen muodostamista. Tätä tavoitetta täydennetään hyödyntäen oikeusvertailevaa pohdintaa erityisesti jäsenvaltioiden työmarkkinajärjestelmien osalta. Lisäksi tutkimuksen viitekehyksessä pyritään tunnistamaan EU:lle ominaiseen hajautuneeseen kansainvälisyksityisoikeudelleen sääntelyyn liittyviä ongelmia metodologisesta näkökulmasta ja esittämään perustuslaillisen ulottuvuuden omaaville normikonflikteille ns. lävistävä (diagonal) käsitteellistämistapa. Keskeisimpänä tuloksena tutkielmassa esitetään jäsenvaltioiden suhtautumisen järjestäytymisvapauteen ja lakko-oikeuteen olevan hyvin monimuotoista. Lainvalintanormeilla voi olla rajoittavaa vaikutusta lakko-oikeuden harjoittamiseen rajat ylittävissä työtaistelutoimenpiteissä. EUT:n tulkintakäytännöllä on hyvin erilaisia vaikutuksia eri jäsenvaltioissa riippuen siitä, miten työmarkkinat on järjestetty. Kokoavasti voidaan kuitenkin todeta, että tietyissä maissa vaikutukset ovat hyvin perustavanlaatuisia ja usein ristiriidassa jäsenvaltioiden kansainvälisten velvoitteiden kanssa. Tähän liittyen huomioidaan myös se, että EUT ei ole luonteeltaan ylikansallinen perustuslakituomioistuin, minkä vuoksi viimeaikainen kehitys ja sen tarkoituksenmukaisuus voidaan kyseenalaistaa.
-
(2019)The use of expert evidence in international commercial arbitration has continued to gain traction and is, in practice, considered a fixture of the procedure. It is, thus, undoubted that the role of expert evidence is significant. This role is strengthened by the fact that without experts providing the tribunal with specialized knowledge on empirical rules at issue, the tribunal is not able to resolve complex factual issues that are beyond its expertise. This study examines the means available to assist the tribunal in resolving issues of conflicting expert evidence in international commercial arbitration. It builds upon the crucial fact that the role of experts is to assist, educate and advise the tribunal, and that they are only needed for deciding on matters that are beyond the knowledge and expertise of the tribunal. Before addressing the research questions, the study aims to introduce the reader to expert witnessing in international commercial arbitration by considering the definition and the objectives of it, and by discussing certain leading principles such as party autonomy and the ability to tailor the procedure. Further, the role of the expert, the influence of both common and civil law traditions as well as the appointment of experts are discussed in brief. The principal problem and main question that this thesis aims to resolve is the following: What are the means available that assist the tribunal in disputes where expert evidence given is contradictory? The said main question is approached through two separate research questions that separately, but also in a mutually supportive manner, aim at resolving the core question mentioned before. The said questions are discussed under separate chapters, namely, the first one considering the procedural means (Chapter 3), and the second one focusing on non-procedural measures and the credibility of the evidence (Chapter 4). This division is made for clarity reasons and despite certain, inevitable overlapping of these themes. The first question seeks to define the procedural measures available that may be of assistance for the tribunal as it resolves issues caused by conflicting expert evidence. These measures are discussed under three categories, to say, the available questioning techniques, different approaches that have their ground in cooperation of the experts, and other innovative means. The first category is focused on two main techniques, cross-examination and expert conferencing. The second one, in turn, discusses the use of pre-hearing expert meetings, joint reports, exchange of draft reports and the Sachs Protocol. Finally, the third category considers, for instance, the use of single joint experts and arbitrator consultants. The second research question, in turn, focuses on the role of credibility and the non-procedural means available to evaluate this. This chapter as well is divided into three main categories. The first one considers the use of legal psychology as an assisting approach, whereas the second one focuses on the individual communication skills of an expert, both written expression and oral skills. The third one, in turn, presents different models on credibility assessment and elaborates on the issues with the existing, mainly procedural, means. This thesis aims not only to present and evaluate the use of different techniques, but also the recent trends in international arbitral practice. The focus of the study is mostly on party-appointed experts as the core issues with conflicting expert evidence are typically related to them. Further, as in most international commercial arbitrations the parties have agreed upon applying the arbitration rules of a particular institute or some other set of rules, this study has its focus on institutional rather than ad hoc arbitration.
-
(2021)The rise of the Internet of Things (IoT) has brought with itself an unimaginable ease to large-scale collection and sharing of personal data. Such large-scale collection and sharing are often done on the basis of data subject’s consent. Consent enjoys a prominent role in the European data protection framework. Consent has, however, been criticised for not providing individuals with adequate protection in online environments. This problem will only be exacerbated with the rise of IoT as IoT extends the data collection practices of the online environments also to offline environments. The purpose of this thesis is to explore the use of consent in the processing of personal data in the IoT. There are two research questions this thesis aims to answer: i) what are the problems and challenges related to the traditional consent based model in relation to IoT, and ii) is there an alternative way forward to user consent? This will be done through legal doctrinal methodology. However, this thesis will also take an interdisciplinary approach as it also draws from different disciplines than law such as technology, behavioural sciences and economics. This thesis shows that, in digitalized world, consent is neither freely given nor informed; thus, challenging the notion of valid consent. These problems arise from information and power asymmetries that are present between data subjects and controllers. However, IoT also brings with itself a unique set of problems as most IoT devices lack screens and input methods making it hard for individuals to access information and provide consent. Moreover, the unobtrusive and ubiquitous nature of IoT makes data collection activities invisible making it hard to apply transparency principle. It is also predicted that the presence of IoT in public spaces leads to the diminishment of private spaces. In light of this, this thesis discusses some alternative ways forward to user consent. The first approach focuses on improving consent, while the second approach aims to shift the focus away from consent by placing accountability on controllers. While both of these alternatives have appeal, they do not come without challenges. Therefore, more research is needed in the field of IoT and data protection.
-
(2021)Health apps that are used by individuals in multiple ways to improve their health and wellbeing are promoted as empowering the individual to control their health. Their increasing use means that they also gather more data concerning the health of the users. This data could be used for research or other public interest purposes, but its availability for secondary use is limited. In the EU there is also political interest to both increase availability of personal data in the inner market, as well as facilitate the use of eHealth solutions, including health apps. In this thesis, I will use legal dogmatics as a method to analyse how health apps could be used to gather data for public interest purposes. I look at what type of data is gathered by the health apps and why it is useful, how the GDPR sets criteria for the gathering of data through the apps and it’s secondary use, and how in special cases of research and other public interests, the rights of the data subject can be derogated. I will also compare this to the planned regulatory framework for data sharing, of the proposal for the Data Governance Act has been published. The main conclusion of the thesis is that that the framework for processing data for public interest purposes does not, in most cases, suit either gathering data by health apps, or secondary use of this data. This is both because the public interest as a processing basis needs to be based on law and needs to be balanced similar to a limitation of fundamental rights in the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union. This approach would in most cases be too heavy for this purpose. Instead, the processing is mainly possible on a consent basis. This could, even with the possibility of easier mechanisms for data sharing through data altruism organisations, affect the quality of the data gained, as the willingness to share data – and to even use a health app - vary between different demographic groups.
-
(2012)This study analyzes the United Nation Security Council (SC) counter-terrorism measures, giving focus to the 1267 sanctions regime against individuals associated with terrorism. The procedures of the 1267 sanctions regime are critically reviewed, with the aim of indicating the human rights concerns, particularly relating to the fundamental procedural rights. The tension between human rights and the security interest behind the counter-terrorism measures is analyzed. Special importance is given to the nature of the sanctions measures, arguing them to be punitive and not only preventative measures. Thus, this study aims to argue that procedural rights should be guaranteed in the 1267 sanctions regime in accordance with human rights law. Secondly, this study aims to present constitutionalization of international community based on legal responsibility, which is reviewed through the progressive work of the International Law Commission. Firstly, the question of responsibility of the United Nations (UN) for the breaches of human rights obligations is analyzed, including the initial question of whether or not the human rights norms are binding towards the UN. Secondly, the focus is turned to the responsibility of the bodies implementing the SC 1267 sanctions measures. The question of responsibility for the implementation will be analyzed from two perspectives: first, from an international constitutionalist approach advocating for the hierarchy of norms in the international community. While the traditional hierarchy of norms invests supremacy to the UN Charter, the constitutionalist approach will lead to the question of responsibility for the implementation in accordance with the UN Charter obligations. When implementation measures, taken by another international or regional organization, are not in accordance with the 1267 sanctions regime obligations, the rules on responsibility will become applicable towards the organization. The second perspective for the responsibility of the implementation measures is the international pluralist approach relying on different legal orders acting parallel to each other. In connection with this perspective the question of State responsibility for circumventing its international obligations is analyzed. Third part of this study presents today’s international community after the improvements the UN has taken under the pressure of the decentralized challenges it has encountered concerning the 1267 sanctions regime. This study argues that even though the UN procedures regarding the 1267 sanctions regime have improved, they are still inadequate to accommodate the human rights concerns, particularly fundamental procedural rights, and that the constitutionalization of the international community requires rules on legal responsibility such as the ones the International Law Commission has drafted.
-
(2014)The purpose of this thesis is to compare Finnish law, English law and the CISG on how the methods of contract interpretation and supplementation ascertain contractual obligations. In other words, how a tribunal is required to examine and reason whether a contractual obligation to act in a certain way exists between the parties. The focus is on commercial contracts concluded in writing. First, this thesis examines Finnish law, English law and the CISG in separate chapters by using a structure that will reveal terminological and theoretical similarities and differences by analysing the theoretical basis of the methods as well as the main principles based on them. This part covers topics, such as what is meant under each law with interpretation and supplementation, the subjective and the objective theoretical approaches as well as with the intent of the parties and understanding of a reasonable person. Second, a comparison is made and conclusions are drawn on how the differences revealed in this thesis may affect a tribunal’s process of interpreting and supplementing a contract. Finally, the overall functionality of the methods is evaluated against the premise that they are expected to guide a tribunal to solve a contract dispute with the best possible outcome. The results of the comparison show that despite the methods under the laws reassemble each other and even use similar terminology, they include remarkable differences that can be traced to be based on the differences in the underlying theories. The difference causing most practical consequences appeared to be in the perspective of how words and expressions used by the parties should be understood. Mainly the question is whereas the words should be understood based on their ordinary meaning or by taking into account the context in which they were used. The evaluation of the functionality of the methods showed that all the laws can be set under certain criticism. It was seen as problematic in this thesis that the laws place the focus excessively on the parties’ communication when ascertaining the contractual obligations. This approach appeared not to properly take into account the fact that languages and human communication are always speculative because they lack a mathematic precision. This feature leads to the situation that interpretation based on parties’ communication will always guide to several different and even random consequences without properly considering what would be the best solution for the contractual dispute. Due to the unpredictability of these methods by law it is suggested in this thesis that contracting parties expressly regulate themselves how a tribunal should interpret and supplement the contract in their specific case. This could be done for example by stating specific values and goals that should be taken into account in order to limit the unpredictability of the interpretation and supplementation results.
-
(2022)This thesis examines contractual interpretation in the United States and the Nordics. The effect of the entire agreement clause on the interpretation process is also examined. The purpose is to identify the main differences and similarities in the U.S. common law and the Nordic civil law approaches to interpretation and enforcement of the entire agreement clause. The principles of contractual interpretation are very similar among the Nordic countries, which allows the Nordics to be discussed as a single entity in relation to interpretation. In the United States, however, we can see a lot of variety in contractual interpretation matters, and not just between states but within the states themselves. Contract law (and contractual interpretation) is mostly governed by state law, which is why very few generalizations can be made that would be representative of every state. In some states contractual interpretation has also been incorporated into statutes. In the Nordics, there are no statutes regulating contractual interpretation; instead, interpretation is guided by general principles. The first part of the thesis concentrates on contractual interpretation in the United States. First, after an introduction to the common law system and sources of law, the entire agreement clause (which originates in Anglo-American law) is studied. Second, the parol evidence rule, which is a unique common law phenomenon and serves a similar purpose as the entire agreement clause, is examined. The focus of the study then moves onto examining the three different theories of interpretation: literalism, objectivism, and subjectivism, after which the interpretation process in general in discussed. Objectivism and the four corners and plain meaning rules stand out in this part of the research. The second part of the thesis focuses on contractual interpretation in the Nordics. The enforcement of the entire agreement clause is also discussed. Objectivism and subjectivism are also addressed from a Nordic point of view, but the general principles of interpretation discussed are not arranged under either label since the interpretation material available for interpretation in the Nordics includes both types of evidence. The interpretation process in general is also examined. The third part comprises of a comparison of contractual interpretation in the U.S. and the Nordics as well as differences in the enforcement of the entire agreement clause. The final part summarizes these findings. The main goal of contractual interpretation, determining the common intention of the parties, is the same in both jurisdictions. The difference is in the way of achieving that result. The main conclusion is that interpreters in the Nordics have more tools at their disposal to reach an optimal interpretive result, as both objective and subjective evidence are always available to aid in the interpretation process. In the U.S., an objective approach to interpretation is favored by most U.S. courts, and the four corners of the contract and the plain meaning rule are emphasized at the start of the interpretive process. Generally, an ambiguity is required to allow extrinsic evidence. In the Nordics, there is no ambiguity requirement. The availability of subjective evidence is not a given in the U.S. like it is in the Nordics. The principles of contractual interpretation presented in the Restatement (Second) of Contracts in the U.S. mirror the Nordic principles closely; however, the adaption of these principles is at the discretion of the courts. The entire agreement clause is generally enforced in the U.S. where greater emphasis is given to written agreements. In the Nordics, however, the effect of the entire agreement clause can be described persuasive at best. Therefore, the conclusion is that the position of the entire agreement clause in the Nordics is weak compared to the U.S.
-
(2014)The principle of finality has served as one of the fundamental principles in international commercial arbitration. Accordingly, once the arbitrators render the award, it is final and binding and not subject to appeal. However, in light of recent development one can see that parties have started to include clauses providing for heightened review of arbitral awards in their arbitration agreements. Some courts have given effect to agreements on expanded review and some have not. The purpose of the thesis is to examine, whether parties can validly expand the grounds for judicial review of arbitral awards. Before going into the matter of expanded review, the study introduces the benefits of arbitration and the traditional methods parties may use in order to actively attack against the arbitral award. The focus of the thesis is on four major jurisdictions, namely the United States, France, Germany and England. By comparing case law and legislative materials of the UNCITRAL Model Law, the French Code of Civil Procedure and the English Arbitration Act, the study addresses the effects agreements on expanded review have been given in different jurisdictions. In comparing the rationale behind different court decisions the study purports to distinguish the decisive factor in determining the effect extended review provisions have on the underlying arbitration agreement. Finally the study compares the pros and cons in allowing for extended review and addresses the question, whether parties’ agreement on expanded review should be considered as a valid exercise of party autonomy or whether party autonomy should be limited by the other objectives in arbitration.
-
(2020)Jäsenvaltioilla on mahdollisuus olla noudattamatta Euroopan unionin oikeutta tilanteissa, joissa eurooppaoikeudellinen normi on vastoin jäsenvaltion oikeusjärjestyksen perusteita. Tanskan korkein oikeus päätti olla noudattamatta Euroopan unionin tuomioistuimen ratkaisua sillä perusteella, että se olisi contra legem, toisin sanoen vastoin Tanskan vallitsevaa lakia. Unionilla on perustamissopimuksista johdettu velvoite kunnioittaa kansallista identiteettiä, jolla halutaan turvata unionin sisäisen monimuotoisuuden säilyminen. Tutkielman tarkoitus on ensisijaisesti selvittää, mikä on usein oikeustieteellisessä kirjallisuudessa esiintyvä oikeusjärjestelmä. Tämä toteutetaan koostamalla oikeusjärjestelmälle välittämättömät kriteerit, joita peilataan keskeisiin oikeusteoreettisiin suuntauksiin kuten oikeuspositivismiin, oikeusrealismiin sekä Tuorin kriittiseen oikeuspositivismiin. Tuorin kriittinen oikeuspositivismi valikoitui tutkimuksen keskiöön yhtäältä siksi, että se tarjoaa kaikkein pitkälle viedyimmän oikeuspositivistisen teorian. Toisaalta Tuori on itsekin todennut, että voimassa olevat oikeusteoreettiset kehikot eivät täysin kykene selittämään unionin oikeuden luonnetta. Tämän vuoksi koin tarpeelliseksi selvittää, tarjoaako Tuorin kriittinen oikeuspositivismi edeltäjiään parempia työkaluja Eurooppalaisen oikeuden selittämiseksi. Oikeusjärjestelmän kriteereitä peilataan myös unionin oikeuteen, ja niistä lähtökohdista luodaan yksi lähtöasetelma oikeusjärjestelmien perusteiden selvittämiseksi. Erityisen haasteen tutkimukseen tuo jäsenvaltioiden oikeusjärjestelmien moninaisuus. Tämän myötä niin oikeusjärjestelmät kuin myös oikeusjärjestelmien perusteet saattavat vaihdella keskenään. Oikeusjärjestelmän kriteeriksi valikoitui normikokonaisuus, tehokkuus, pätevyys, legitimiteetti sekä autonomisuus. Yhdessä nämä kriteerit luovat oikeusjärjestelmän. Euroopan unionin voidaan sanoa täyttävän jokaisen näistä kriteereistä. Se, kuinka se nämä kriteerit täyttää, riippuu siitä, kuinka me kulloisetkin käsitteet määrittelemme.
-
(2018)The United Nations Refugee Agency, UNHCR, is an international organization operating in refugee situations. The core of the UNHCR mandate is to protect people in refugee situations by providing assistance and seeking permanent solutions. The research question in this thesis is as follows: can the UNHCR be held responsible under international law for violating the rights of refugees? This question is illustrated through the long-term refugee camp management performed by the UNHCR and the rights set out in the 1951 Refugee Convention. The thesis looks into the law of international institutions and the origins of UNHCR. The law of responsibility is discussed with ARIO, the International Law Commission´s Draft Articles on the Responsibility of International Organizations. ARIO states that every internationally wrongful act of an international organization entails the international responsibility of that organization (art. 3). This provides an expression of a general principle on responsibility in international law, and confirms its application to international organizations. The mandate of the UNHCR, which has been extended over years and is interpreted ratione personae, has in its core the international protection of refugees. This thesis argues that the mandate creates obligations for the UNHCR, also human rights obligations. By discussing the applicability of human rights to the UN and the relevant human rights norms in refugee context, the thesis argues that the 1951 Refugee Convention can be seen as binding to the UNHCR as well as other fundamental rights that are at the core of Agency´s mandate to provide international protection. This is underpinned by the factual circumstances; named de facto control that the Agency has in its operations. Research done in this area illustrates that there are sensitive areas to the human rights protection performed by the UNHCR. This thesis argues that some of the violations that occur in the conduct of the UNHCR are inherent to the work and operations of the Agency. This thesis argues that the encampment policy that the UNHCR itself maintains is not at all supported by international human rights law – the conclusion is the opposite. There is no mandate or legal basis for to support long term refugee encampment. The thesis analyses how the ARIO could be applied to the UNHCR. When the UNHCR exercises control in refugee camps, its conduct is attributable to the organization, or the host State – or both. The argument of the thesis is that ARIO can be applied to the UNHCR. However, ARIO has deficiencies, some of which seem irreparable. It does not correspond to the particularities of exercise of power of public law nature and does not provide satisfactory means of accountability for refugee context. But ARIO makes the application of human rights obligations feasible in the context of responsibility of international organizations. Ultimate responsibility for refugee protection still lies with states, but by accepting the responsibility regime, international organizations would gain a role more dominant in the general corpus of international law.
-
(2017)Geographical indications (”GIs”) are a form of intellectual property rights that are used to distinguish the geographical origin of a product, which has qualities or characteristics that are essentially attributable for that geographical origin. The protection of GIs is heavily based on the concept of terroir, This concept of a French origin has historically been seen to indicate that distinctive qualities of food products are imparted from an area or terrain. Instead of being private rights, GIs are considered as collective rights, which cannot be traded or sold GIs are a very debated topic both at the European Union (“EU”) level as well as in an international context. Thereby the aim of this Thesis is trying to assess the functions of GIs and the aims and scope of the sui generis GI protection system in the EU. This Thesis shall also try to assess the prominent collision situations between a GI and a trademark as many trademarks contain or consist of designations that coincide with a geographical name of a place. Should these kinds of trademarks be at risk to always losing the battle when colliding with GIs? One of the aims of this Thesis is trying to shed light on how should conflicts between colliding GIs and trademarks be resolved. The question regarding the effect these conflict-solving methods to the legitimate expectations regarding the right to property conveyed by a trademark shall also be analysed. As the collisions of GIs and trademarks are by virtue setting private exclusive rights against collective rights, aspects such as the preservation of cultural heritage shall be included.
-
(2021)Developed common-law jurisdictions have had better economic performance in comparison to continental European countries. An integral part of corporate risk management is defending against hostile takeover attempts. Hostile takeover activity is by majority represented in the countries with more widely dispersed share ownership, such as the United States and United Kingdom. One side suggests that ultimately corporate governance structures around the global economy will converge with the United States shareholder-oriented model. This paper will focus on discussing whether the United States practices in mergers and acquisitions regarding hostile takeover defensive tactics have impacted the way regulators in Europe and Finland allow and apply similar takeover defense corporate governance mechanisms. The author will compare U.S. law and case law to the European Takeover Directive and later to the Finnish Limited Liability Companies Act and the Securities Markets Act. The research question is whether Finland as part of the EU is converging to the Anglo-American legal standard in terms of hostile takeover defense tactics. The author finds that elements of U.S. corporate law has been transplanted to Finnish corporate laws and that similar tactics aimed at frustrating or defeating a hostile takeover can be used in Finland.
-
(2020)Data protection has become a pivotal topic in modern democratic societies. Lawmakers have, however, faced challenges in protecting data in the face of rapid technological growth and development in the online environment. ‘Cookies’ are a prominent tool for website operators that enable the collection and processing of vast amounts of personal data of internet users. The use of cookies is based on user’s consent as required under Article 5(3) of Directive 2002/58/EC (ePrivacy Directive). It is, however, questionable whether cookie consent and notice practices are de facto effective in protecting internet users and providing them control over the use of their data obtained via cookies. The goal of this master’s thesis is to analyse whether the traditional model of consent and notice is the appropriate legal basis for the use of website cookies. The research question is divided into two parts. The first part concerns whether consent and notice are an effective tool in providing control and protection to individuals with respect to personal data processed through internet cookies. The second part concerns whether the EU’s data protection framework provides clear and harmonised rules on cookie consents and notices. It will focus especially on the General Data Protection Regulation 2016/679 (GDPR) and the ePrivacy Directive. This thesis uses mainly the legal doctrinal method and qualitative empirical evidence in answering its research question. After the introductory chapter, this thesis will in chapter 2 define cookies and its purposes, as well as outline the legal framework used in this research. Chapter 3 introduces the reader to the concept of consent and its different components, as well as the transparency principle and the accompanying information obligation. Consent consists of freely given, specific, informed and unambiguous elements. Chapter 4 will then discuss the first part of the research question. It will be seen that cookie consents and notices are burdened by many factors as evidenced through behavioural economics, cognitive and structural problems, as well as other factors. It is concluded, therefore, that cookie consents and notices in their traditional form are not an effective tool in providing control and data protection to internet users. Nevertheless, consent and notice are so enshrined in the EU’s data protection regime that they will not be easily abandoned. Chapter 5 discusses the second part of the research question by looking at practical examples in order to see how websites from the legal sector and different national data protection authorities have complied with cookie consent and notice obligations. It will be seen that cookie rules are interpreted inconsistently by even these websites, which has resulted in noncompliance in some instances. Hence, it is concluded that the GDPR and the ePrivacy Directive have failed to harmonise cookie consents and notices. Chapter 6 will look to the future and discuss briefly the proposed Regulation on Privacy and Electronic Communications (ePrivacy Regulation) in terms of i) ‘cookie walls’, which basically coerces website users to accept cookies or otherwise they will be denied access to the site or service, and ii) the legitimate interests ground, which has been introduced as an alternative legal basis to consent with respect to cookies in the latest revised draft of the ePrivacy Regulation adopted on 21 February 2020 by the Croatian Presidency. It will be concluded in chapter 7 that the traditional model of consent and notice might not always be the appropriate legal basis for cookies, hence legislators should look into other legal bases as well, such as, the legitimate interest ground. However, whether or not this ground will be able to provide better protection and control to internet users remains to be seen.
-
(2020)The thesis analyzes how the EU regulates freedom of expression on social media and how the regulation transfers power. It interrogates EU’s positive fundamental right obligation to put in place a legislative and administrative framework to prevent and redress different online harms. By taking up a critical method that analyzes the contradiction between efficiency and democracy, the thesis focuses on the changes that are happening to positive obligations as part of the fundamental rights structure. The thesis links the structural changes to the advancement of neoliberal governmentality that favors managerial techniques such as cost-benefit analysis and privatization in government. After laying out the foundations, the thesis is divided into two parts. The first part departs from the observation that the EU has pressure to shift positive obligations regarding the protection of people’s freedom of expression and related rights to social media companies. It develops the general analytical framework of cooperation and contest which is informed by power struggles. In cooperation, the interests of the EU and the companies in rights protection are considered aligned. In contest, the focus is on situations where the interests diverge and where the EU and the companies deploy their respective strategies to assert their power unilaterally. The second part contextualizes the framework of cooperation and contest in three case studies. The case studies analyze three different initiatives to regulate social media introduced by the EU between 2016 and 2019. The initiatives are EU Code of conduct on hate speech, the revised Directive on audiovisual media services, and the Regulation on preventing the dissemination of terrorist content online. The case studies locate cooperation and contest in regulation through the analysis of relevant policy documents and other preparatory materials of the legislative processes. The thesis concludes that the emerging regulatory framework for rights protection exhibits hybridity that results from the interconnectedness of public and private power. While the framework can provide more effectiveness for the EU in protecting rights and public interest on social media, by deploying managerial techniques it also tends to sideline the considerations for people’s democratic self-determination, and reinforce the power of the executive and large social media companies. It is argued that new ways to enhance the horizontality of rights are needed for people to assert their rights against emerging hybrid power.
-
(2022)När verk som åtnjuter upphovsrättsligt skydd delas på fildelningsnätverk utan rättsinnehavarens samtycke måste rättsinnehavaren verkställa rättigheten för att ha möjlighet att kräva kompensation av den som nyttjat verket. Rätten kan verkställas genom att begära åtkomst till nätverksanvändarnas personuppgifter. Entiteten som verkställer upphovsrätt är i de flesta fall inte den verkliga rättsinnehavaren utan så kallade upphovsrättstroll som har förvärvat rätten genom andra medel. Behandlingen av de förmodade gärningsmännens personuppgifter måste ha en laglig grund (artikel 6 i den allmänna dataskyddsförordningen), av vilka en möjlig grund är att behandlingen är nödvändig för ändamål som rör den personuppgiftsansvariges eller en tredje parts berättigade intressen. Syftet med avhandlingen är att undersöka hur verkställandet av upphovsrätt bemöts när ett upphovsrättstroll är den verkställande entiteten samt att undersöka lagenligheten av behandlandet av användarnas personuppgifter i den nämnda kontexten, med fokus på den personuppgiftsansvariges berättigade intressen. Avhandlingen diskuterar även balansgången mellan upphovsrätt och dataskydd i konfliktsituationer samt hur proportionalitetsprincipen påverkar verkställandet av rättigheterna. Som forskningsmetod tillämpas den rättsdogmatiska metoden med inriktning på rationell argumentation, vilken möjliggör framförandet av argument och slutsatser genom rationell dialog. En central källa är Mircom v Telenet-avgörandet som tillför värdefulla insikter till diskussionen kring avhandlingens tema. Rättspraxis från bland annat Förenta staterna och Kanada presenteras även för att tillföra kontrast. Den centrala lagstiftningen i koppling till temat är EU direktivet om säkerställande av skyddet för immateriella rättigheter (2004/48/EG) och den allmänna dataskyddsförordningen (EU 2016/679). I tillägg till det presenteras synpunkter angående verkställighet av upphovsrätt, upphovsrättstroll, dataskydd och balansgången mellan rättigheterna som diskuterats i olika publikationer och i litteratur. Trots att upphovsrättstrollens verksamhet i allmänhet bemöts negativt både i domstolar och av publiken stöder sig domstolarna ofta på verkligt bevis av missbruk av rätten till verkställighet som trollen besitter, vilket i många fall inte är lätt att påvisa. En möjlig lösning kunde vara att fastställa tydligare bestämmelser angående rättighetsmissbruk i upphovsrättssektorn, som skulle förbjuda missbruk utan att avlägsna rättsinnehavarens möjlighet att överflytta verkställningsansvaret till en annan entitet. Angående lagenligheten av behandlingen av personuppgifter kan det konstateras att behandlingen kan godkännas på basis av berättigat intresse, men att behandlingen förutsätter utförandet av en balansgång mellan rättigheterna utgående från bland annat fallets specifika omständigheter och parternas verkliga intressen, i enlighet med proportionalitetsprincipen. Balansgången påverkas ytterligare av att rättigheterna i denna kontext föranleds av rättighetsmissbruk, vilket leder till tolkningssvårigheter angående vilken rättighet som kan anses mer vägande.
-
(2013)Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena on systematisoida Corporate benefit -käsitteen määritelmää osakeyhtiölain ja takaisinsaantilain näkökulmasta arvioitaessa konserniyhtiöiden välisiä liiketoimia. Corporate benefit -doktriinin mukaan yhtiön johto ei saa sitoutua liiketoimiin, jotka eivät edistä yhtiön etua. Vaikka yhdysvaltalaiseen oikeuteen juurensa juontava käsite on ollut yleisesti käytössä liikejuridiikan saralla Suomessa jo pitkään, on käsitteen tosiasiallinen sisältö ja merkitys edelleen vakiintumaton. Tämä johtuu osaksi siitä, että käsite kytkeytyy sekä useaan osakeyhtiöoikeudellisen periaatteeseen että takaisinsaantilakiin mutta myös siitä, että arvio yhtiön edun toteutumisesta on vahvasti kontekstisidonnaista. Tutkielmassa keskitytään arvioimaan sitä, miten konserniyhtiölle annettua velkaa, toisen konserniyhtiön velasta annettua vakuutta sekä konserniavustusta tulee arvioida osakeyhtiölain ja takaisinsaantilain näkökulmasta. Lähipiirin välillä tapahtuvien liiketoimien ei voida automaattisesti olettaa tapahtuvan markkinaehtoisesti. Yhtiön edun käsitteen tarkastelu on näin ollen konserniyhtiöiden välillä erityisen merkityksellistä. Mielenkiinnon kohteena on tutkimuksessa erityisesti sen selvittämissä, milloin yhtiön edun voidaan katsoa täyttyvän ja milloin liiketoimi vaihtoehtoisesti ei mahdu yhtiön edun raameihin. Arvioon sisältyy useita erityiskysymyksiä riippuen siitä, onko kyseessä konserniavustus, vierasvelkavakuus vai lähipiirivelka. Liiketaloudellisen perusteen arvioimiseen syvennytään tutkimuksessa useiden käytännön esimerkkien avulla. Muilta osin tutkimus painottuu lainsäädännön tarkasteluun lain esitöiden sekä oikeuskirjallisuudessa esiintyvien kannanottojen pohjalta. Yhtiön johdon sitoutuessa konserniyhtiöiden välisiin liiketoimiin, tulee yhtiöoikeudellisen sallittavuuden lisäksi arvioitavaksi mahdolliset takaisinsaantilain mukaiset seuraukset. Liiketoimien kontekstisidonnaisuudesta johtuen voi vastikkeellisuuden täyttyminen edellyttää takaisinsaantilain kannalta vahvempia perusteluja kuin tarkasteltaessa kysymystä osakeyhtiölain näkökulmasta. Takaisinsaantilain perusteella oikeustoimi saattaa tietyissä tilanteissa olla lahjanomainen, vaikka siitä saatu vastike tai etu katsottaisiin osakeyhtiölain näkökulmasta riittäväksi. Tutkimuksen keskiössä onkin näin ollen myös se, milloin konserniavustus, vierasvelkavakuus tai konserniyhtiölle annettu velka arvioidaan takaisinsaantilain näkökulmasta vastikkeettomaksi suoritukseksi. Tutkimuksessa keskustellaan myös mahdollisuudesta soveltaa vakuuden peräyttämistä koskevaa takaisinsaantilain sääntelyä analogisesti vierasvelkavakuuksiin tilanteessa, jossa vakuus on annettu toisen konserniyhtiön velasta. Lisäksi konsernipankkia koskevissa peräytyksissä käsitellään mahdollisuutta turvautua takaisinsaantilain säännöksiin sellaisen omaisuuden peräyttämisestä, joka on luovutettu edelleen. Tutkimuksessa arvioidaan myös mahdollisuutta peräyttää oikeustoimia yleisen takaisinsaantiperusteen sekä maksun peräytyssääntelyn nojalla velkojien viimesijaisena suojakeinona. Tutkimuksen viimeisessä luvussa luodaan yleisluonteinen katsaus siihen, mitkä ovat mahdolliset osakeyhtiölainmukaiset seuraukset silloin, kun liiketoimen katsotaan loukkaavan yhtiön etua. Erityisesti aktualisoituu kysymys johdon mahdollisesta vahingonkorvausvelvollisuudesta. Tämän ohella ovat oikeustoimen pätemättömyys ja varojen palautusvelvollisuus mahdollisia seuraamuksia yhtiön edun puuttuessa. Vähemmistöosakkeenomistajilla on myös mahdollisuus moittia yhtiökokouksen päätöstä, mikäli oikeustoimen katsotaan loukkaavan yhdenvertaisuusperiaatetta.
-
(2023)This thesis in law examines the legal effects that companies may face if they use carbon dioxide (CO2) offset as a basis for their carbon neutrality claim and this offset is in later scrutiny revealed as double counted. Double counting renders the carbon neutrality claim void, as the offset is also counted for elsewhere and therefore does not deliver climate change mitigation outcome for the company. Avoiding double counting is one of the established quality criterions of carbon offset, however it is not straightforward to assess the criterion ex-ante as the practise occurs ex-post. Double counting can occur unintentionally but also intentionally by fraud. This thesis examines the topic in relation to EU law and draws examples from national legislations of the Member States, notably from Finland. Companies can purchase carbon offset from the voluntary carbon market. They can purchase it for varied reasons related to corporate social responsibility. However, most often offset is purchased to claim carbon neutrality. Carbon neutrality is a voluntary goal for companies. It can be achieved by reducing CO2 emissions that can be reduced and then compensating the residual emissions by purchasing offset. Carbon offset is a commodity - one kiloton of CO2 emissions equivalent is valued as a one carbon credit. Carbon credits are constructed under different schemes, and as such are based on different standards and have different prices. The market is international in nature, and in many cases the actors are in different countries. The voluntary carbon market is not regulated by substantive law and therefore, the market remains regulated by self-regulation. This creates issues in quality assurance and also the problem of lack of oversight and enforcement. The differently constructed commodities are also difficult to compare, and the market includes information asymmetry and integrity risks. The legal effects of double counting in relation to carbon neutrality claims is a phenomenon currently related also to the Paris Agreement, as both offset project host country and a company might claim the same emissions reductions. This current state of affairs makes it probable that the corporate offset is double counted. If the corporate claims are rendered void, it has negative effect on climate change mitigation but also to the company’s reputation which can in turn can lead to significant monetary losses. In relation to ‘green’ consumer products, companies may face accusations of misleading marketing practices or greenwashing, if it is revealed that compensation was purchased from a poor-quality offset project. Also, the rise of human rights consciousness in relation to emissions reductions under the Paris Agreement may play part in the risk of environmental litigation also for companies.
-
(2018)Crimes perpetrated by large corporate actors are often met with impunity. This is particularly relevant in the case of the international core crimes and grave human rights abuses. Serious breaches of human rights were once thought to only committed by states and their actors, but as corporations grow to gain more power than that of some states, so grows their power to commit egregious abuses. As such, it is imperative to assess the mechanisms governing corporate actions, on both the international and domestic levels. This paper aims to provide a overview of the mechanisms governing corporate criminal liability for violations of the international core crimes through an assessment of ongoing soft law mechanisms, international tribunal precedent, domestic practices looking into best practices as well as common failures. Ultimately, the author finds that in order to effectively achieve criminal liability for corporate perpetrators of atrocity crimes, domestic paths must be pursued and strengthened before moving forward at the international criminal level. In the first part of this paper the author lays the ground work for how businesses can commit egregious abuses, and provides background on the ongoing frameworks of corporate social responsibility which dominates the human rights and business space. The second part looks into the international soft law mechanisms that largely govern how businesses operate with respect to human rights and preventing violations of the core international crimes. Several of the major mechanisms are selected and analyzed, along with a failed proposal by the United Nations, and a new Draft Treaty on Business and Human Rights. The third part looks at the how corporate criminal liability functions as part of international law customs and at international tribunals, with a look into the Nuremberg industrialist trials, the notable failure to include legal persons into the founding documents of the International Criminal Court, and a hopeful ruling regarding the jurisdiction over legal persons by the Special Tribunal for Lebanon. The fourth part focuses on domestic systems, looking into how corporate criminal liability is applied within two different jurisdictions, France and the United States, and one corporate accountability case that spans both jurisdictions. Finally, the author gives recommendations on what can be done in order to move forward with creating a more cohesive approach to corporate criminal liability for atrocity crimes at the international level, which is largely dependent on that of domestic systems.
Now showing items 335-354 of 3676