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Browsing by discipline "Economics"

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  • Helander, Maria (2014)
    The aim of this thesis is to study the effects of household wealth on consumption. The focus of the study is on the effects of physical wealth, namely housing and forest wealth, on consumption in Finland. The empirical estimation is conducted using cross-sectional household level data obtained from the 1998 Household Wealth Survey compiled by Statistics Finland. The estimation is performed using OLS regression and taking into account survey design considerations. The results from the study provide evidence confirming the existence of a wealth effect on consumption regarding housing wealth, forest wealth as well as financial wealth. The study finds the housing wealth effect on consumption to be positive and much larger than the financial wealth effect for those households that are homeowners. However, the magnitude and the sign of the wealth effect seems to somewhat differ by the amount of accumulated net housing wealth. Evidence of the existence of a life-cycle pattern in consumption is also confirmed for the subsample of homeowners by comparing differences in wealth effects between household age groups. It should however be emphasised, that actual life-cycle behaviour can only be traced with the use of panel data. The study finds evidence that the effect of forest wealth on consumption may be negative for the subsample of forest owners. Further study then reveals that the negative estimate for the effect of net forest wealth on consumption observed for the whole subsample seems to arise from the much stronger and significant negative estimate obtained for the subgroup of forest owning farmer households. This finding could in part be explained by the skewed age distribution of forest owning households, the fact that forest owning farmer households are likely to be engaging more in home production, which lowers observed consumption outside of the home, and that farmer owned forestland estates, and the logging income they generate, are often used for funding farm associated investments. In order to study the concavity of the consumption function in Finland, wealth and income effects are estimated separately for the net wealth quintiles of households using the whole sample of observations. The results indicate that the effect of a change in financial wealth or income on consumption is indeed larger for households with small total net wealth. This finding suggests that in the case of a wealth or income shock that disproportionately affects households with less net wealth, the economy level effects on aggregate consumption may be larger than those estimated by traditional models.
  • Lipijäinen, Margarita (2017)
    The debate on the topic of the merits of fiscal policy has re-emerged due to the financial crisis of 2008-10 and the effect of the zero lower bound on monetary policy. New research has added new models and identification methods to the growing body of literature on fiscal multipliers. The motivation for the paper was to investigate the effects of fiscal policy shocks using a structural VAR. The main goal has been to estimate the spending and tax multipliers for Estonia. Estonia was one of the first countries to put forth austere fiscal consolidation measures in response to the aforementioned crisis. Thereafter, it has become a peculiar case study for critics and advocates of austerity, as it managed to grow its way through the financial crisis despite significant austerity measures. A major challenge when using a SVAR is the identification of fiscal policy shocks. Due to the simplicity of the method and the lack of narrative data on fiscal measures, I opted to estimate the SVAR using the Cholesky decomposition. The estimated multipliers are small in magnitude, same as mostly found in the literature based on the Blanchard-Perotti identification scheme. However, the signs of the estimates are reversed compared to the usual. Estimation results show positive spending shocks to be contractionary and positive tax shocks to be expansionary. These can be interpreted as negative fiscal multipliers, as found in papers such as Giavazzi and Pagano (1990) and Alesina and Ardagna (1998). This suggests that fiscal austerity could be expansionary in the Estonian economy. Another explanation for the results is the possibility that the the spending-savings decisions of the Estonian firms and consumers are consistent with Ricardian equivalence. Furthermore, the small sample size and the possibility of a misspecified model are other important aspect to keep in mind when interpreting the results. Thus, further investigation is warranted. The study could be extended in many different directions. For instance, one could attempt to estimate state-dependent multipliers, control for fiscal foresight, test different SVAR identification schemes, include monetary policy interactions with fiscal policy, and extending the research to a panel study covering all the Baltic States. The latter could perhaps offer a way out of the small sample size problem, considering the similarity of Estonian and other Baltic economies.
  • Ulyanchenko, Olga (2011)
    Central and East European countries have faced a difficult process of transition since the dissolution of the Soviet bloc. Ten transition countries (Hungary, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Bulgaria and Romania have chosen to join the EU and have moulded their transition reforms to ensure the compliance of their legal and institutional framework with EU requirements. The high levels of FDI attracted by the candidate countries for EU membership had been attributed to rapid transition of the countries aiming to join the European Union and the fact that favourable evaluations by EU authorities of the progress made by the candidates had a large impact on improving investor confidence. The aim of this paper is to investigate the reform strategies of the Czech Republic and Slovakia undertaken when the countries were preparing for EU membership and the dynamics of FDI inflows into these economies. Subsequently a comparative analysis of FDI stocks in these countries is conducted. We find that both countries faced similar economic challenges in implementing structural and institutional reforms. In accordance with EU requirements the Czech Republic and Slovakia have perfected their legal and institutional framework, increased the authority of regulatory and supervisory bodies and focused on implementation of new or amended legislation. During the period of the analysis (1998 - 2007) the Czech Republic and Slovakia have attracted increasing amounts of FDI. Comparative analysis in terms of important determinants of FDI reveals further similar features: macroeconomic stability; an open and liberalised market; low labour costs compared to EU-15 and a similar breakdown of FDI inflows by investor country. Consequently, the fact that the Czech Republic received much larger volumes of net FDI inflows could be attributed to the difference in market size between the two states. This conclusion is consistent with previous empirical studies that list market size among the main determinants of FDI. However, when we look at FDI as a percentage of GDP the evidence is more mixed. In 2004 - 2007, Slovakia has surpassed the Czech Republic twice. Whether this tendency will persist remains to be seen. The analysis in this paper based on empirical data. However, the choice of the method, namely case studies and comparative analysis, means that the conclusions of this study are theoretical and remain to be further tested in quantitative models.
  • Rokkanen, Sakari (2020)
    Euroopan unioni laajeni itään 1.5.2004 kasvaen kymmenellä uudella jäsenmaalla. Suomi rajoitti kaksivuotisella siirtymäaikalailla uusien jäsenmaiden kansalaisten vapaata liikkuvuutta. Laki ei koskenut palveluiden liikkuvuutta, minkä seurauksena erityisesti Virosta saapui Suomeen paljon työvoimaa paikallisten yritysten lähetettyinä työntekijöinä. Vastoin alkuperäisen siirtymäaikalain tavoitetta ulkomaalaisten lähetettyjen työntekijöiden maahantulo helpottui ja työehtojen valvonta vaikeutui. Tässä tutkimuksessa hyödynnetään EU:n itälaajentumista luonnollisena koetapahtumana, jonka avulla pyritään selvittämään muutosten vaikutuksia uusmaalaisten rakennusmiesten palkkakehitykseen lyhyellä aikavälillä. Itälaajentumisen ja siirtymäaikalain myötä kasvanut ulkomaalainen työvoima painottui erityisesti Uudellemaalle ja rakennusalalle. Muualla Suomessa ulkomaisen työvoiman kasvu oli merkittävästi vähäisempää. Tutkimuksessa käytetään difference-in-differences menetelmää. Uusmaalaisten rakennusmiesten verrokkiryhmänä analyysissa hyödynnetään rakennusmiehiä Itä-Suomen rakennuspiiristä, jossa EU:n itälaajentuminen ei kasvattanut ulkomaisen työvoiman määrää. Muilta osin erot alueiden välillä säilyivät tarkastelujaksolla vakaina. Tutkimuksessa on käytetty ryhmätason aineistoa talonrakennusalan järjestäytyneiden yritysten keskituntiansioista. Tiedot on poimittu EK:n palkkatilastosta. Analyysin perusteella uusmaalaisten rakennusmiesten keskimääräinen tuntiansio laski -1,55 prosentilla vuoden 2003 lopusta vuoden 2004 loppuun. Sen sijaan työtehtäviltään erikoistuneempien kirvesmiesten palkkoihin ulkomaisen työvoiman kasvu ei tulosten mukaan käytännössä vaikuttanut. Lisäksi rakennusmiehiin kohdistuneet negatiiviset vaikutukset arvioitiin lyhytaikaisiksi sekä pieniksi suhteutettuna ulkomaisen työvoiman merkittävään kasvuun. Koeasetelmaan ja ryhmätason aineistoon liittyvät rajoitteet heikentävät tulosten yleistettävyyttä ja luotettavuutta. Tulokset antavat kuitenkin tukea näkemykselle, että mitä koulutetummasta tai osaamiseltaan erikoistuneemmasta ammattilaisesta on kysymys, sitä pienempi voidaan ennakoida olevan ulkomaisen työvoiman kasvun tai työehtojen joustojen lisääntymisen negatiivinen vaikutus palkkakehitykseen.
  • Lahdensuo, Heli (2018)
    Tämä tutkielma käsittelee keskuspankin rahapolitiikan muutosta ja vaikuttavuutta erityisesti korko-ohjauksen näkökulmasta tilanteessa, jossa käteisen rahan käyttö lakkaisi ja tilalle tulisi kokonaan elektroninen valuutta. Tutkimus pureutuu keskuspankin mahdollisuuteen kontrolloida lyhyen aikavälin korkoa, kun sillä ei ole enää yksinvaltaa kontrolloida selvittelyreservejä käteisen rahan kadotessa ja teknologian kehityksen nopeuttaessa maksujen selvittelyä. Työn kannalta keskeistä on, mitä tapahtuisi keskuspankkireservien kysynnälle, jos käteisen rahan käyttö loppuisi ja millainen rooli keskuspankille jäisi suhteessa talletuspankkeihin tässä tilanteessa. Teorian mukaan talletuspankkien välisen selvittelyn lisääntyminen laskee keskuspankkireservien kysyntää. Kuitenkin kriisitilanteissa keskuspankin asema korostuisi kuten tähänkin asti. Työssä esitellään Euroopan keskuspankin rahapolitiikan periaatteet ja pohditaan historian valossa päätöksiä, jotka ovat muokanneet keskuspankin rahapolitiikkaa. Vähimmäisreservijärjestelmään perustuva systeemi ei ollut euroalueella itsestäänselvyys. Reservivaateeseen perustuva järjestelmä valittiin, jotta keskuspankin taseen kokoa saatiin kasvatettua ja talletuspankkien riippuvuutta keskuspankkirahasta lisättyä. Maksamiseen liittyvät teknologiset innovaatiot nopeuttavat selvittelyä ja talletuspankit tasaavat maksuja keskenään yhä nopeammin. Lisäksi markkinoille on tullut useita keskuspankista riippumattomia virtuaalivaluuttoja. Tämä muuttaa keskuspankin asemaa rahajärjestelmässä lisäten sen valvojan tehtäviä ja vähentäen reservirahaan liittyviä tehtäviä. Näyttää myös siltä, että erilaiset maksutavat erikoistuvat tiettyihin maksutapahtumiin. Elektronisen maksamisen hyödyt ovat kiistattomat läpinäkyvyyden ja taloudellisen tehokkuuden vuoksi. Keskuspankin korko-ohjausmahdollisuuden heikkeneminen vaikuttaa epäsuorasti talouden kysynnän ja tarjonnan ohjaamismahdollisuuksiin erityisesti taloudellisten häiriöiden tilanteessa. Keskuspankin aseman heikkeneminen olisi myös viennin tukemisen kannalta hankalaa, kun sen mahdollisuudet valuuttaohjaukseen katoaisivat. Käteisettömässä taloudessa keskuspankin mahdollisuus tarjota rahoitusta ei tue sen valtaa kontrolloida lyhyen ajan korkoa, koska tarjontaa on kilpailevissa valuutoissa paljon. Keskuspankin olisi tällöin korkoihin vaikuttaakseen lainattava rahaa markkinoilta ja tarjottava sitä talletuspankeille markkinakorkoa edullisemmin, mikä luo arbitraasin. Tutkielma on teoreettinen katsaus, joka pohjautuu reservikysyntään liittyvään kanavamalliin. Työssä mallinnetaan keskuspankin reservikysyntää ja mahdollisuutta lyhyen ajan korko-ohjaukseen käteisettömässä taloudessa ja kahden selvittelyrahan tarjoajan tilanteessa. Työn esimerkissä selvittelyrahan tarjoajat ovat keskuspankki ja talletuspankeista koostuva yhteisö, joka käyttää keskuspankista riippumatonta valuuttaa. Rahan luominen ja selvittely voivat siis siirtyä nykyistä enemmän markkinoille, jolloin keskuspankin monopoli heikkenee tai jopa lakkaa. Talletuspankit käyttävät todennäköisesti keskuspankkia edelleen viimekäden lainan antajana, mikäli tämä kykenee pienestä koostaan huolimatta hankkimaan markkinoilta rahaa muita edullisemmin. Tässä valtion tuki voi auttaa. Mikäli valtio kuitenkin kerää veronsa keskuspankkivaluutassa, vahvistaa se keskuspankin mahdollisuuksia harjoittaa rahapolitiikkaa reservivaateesta ja käteisen käytöstä riippumatta. Reservivaade toisaalta lisää keskuspankin valtaa ja toimii joissain tilanteissa korko-ohjausta tehokkaammin talouden ohjaajana. Toisaalta se luo tehottomuutta, koska kassareservisysteemiin liittyy kustannuksia.
  • Virtanen, Ville Valtteri (2018)
    Auctions are in the core on the field of dynamic pricing. Prices alter as a function of time, by either ascending or descending, and the objective of this kind of pricing mechanism is to allocate the good for the one who is willing to pay the winning price. Northwestern University has used a pricing mechanism (Purple Pricing) combining characteristics of descending auction and dynamic pricing for several years in order to sell tickets to the university’s basketball teams’ home matches. The aim of this thesis is to examine and evaluate the functioning of this kind of mechanism. The main sources for the material and content for this literary survey can be categorized to three branches. Models and main theoretic results were provided by using related economic literature, practical model of Purple Pricing was taken as a research topic separately, and some of key facts regarding functioning of the pricing mechanism were gathered through enquiry. Main results were that Purple Pricing can be modelled by using Bellman equation and characterised as a descending auction where agents (the university and the spectators) interact with both sides having own separate maximization problems. The agents can be distinguished into seller and bidders. With certain assumptions regarding the agents, model can be solved. The solution in itself provides optimality conditions which maximize the allocation (and revenue maximization) problem of the organizer (the university). The functioning of the model has caused result concerning both ticket allocation, but also real life side effects. Besides being socially efficient in allocating the tickets, its merits have been likes of the disclosure of demand curve and abolishment of black market. Although due to its special pricing policy it was not able to reach optimum (maximum) revenue, increase in revenue did occur. Similar pricing mechanisms with context-related adjustments have potential to be used in Finnish football.
  • Virkola, Tuomo (2013)
    Fiscal policy is the only available sovereign macroeconomic stabilization tool for countries that have adopted a fixed exchange rate regime. Among these countries are the members of the euro zone that have adopted a common currency. However, there exists little empirical evidence on the effectiveness of fiscal policy measures under such an economic environment. The effects of fiscal policy shocks have been mostly studied in the United States or other non-European countries operating under flexible exchange rate regimes. This thesis studies the effects of discretionary fiscal policy shocks in small open economies under different exchange rate regimes. The empirical analysis is based on a structural vector autoregressive (SVAR) model that takes advantage of institutional knowledge on tax collection lags and automatic movements in government expenditure and net taxes. In particular, the thesis suggest that by estimating the effects of fiscal policy shocks in two structurally similar countries that have opted for different monetary policy regimes (Finland and Sweden) one can convincingly control for the economic environment and study the effect of exchange rate regime on fiscal policy transmission. Further, the thesis proposes to augment the baseline model with quarterly fiscal forecasts and to study the effects of fiscal policy under fiscal foresight, i.e., when economic agents may anticipate and respond to fiscal policy measures prior to their implementation. The results suggest that the effects of fiscal policy shocks depend on the exchange rate regime. The effects of fiscal policy shocks under a fixed exchange rate tend to be more expansionary when compared to a floating exchange rate regime. The quantitative estimates of the effects of fiscal policy shocks tend to be associated with notable uncertainty, but it is argued that the qualitative difference is robust to a variety of sensitivity tests. In addition, the thesis suggests that fiscal foresight may affect the identification of fiscal policy shocks and hence the estimated dynamic results within conventional SVAR models. The findings are consistent with previous fiscal policy literature that has considered fiscal policy shocks within different exchange rate regimes, but also with studies that have incorporated fiscal foresight into SVAR models.
  • Hämäläinen, Taina (2013)
    There are many studies concerning the supply of labor. However, although overtime work is a common phenomenon, it is rarely the topic of these studies. This thesis studies remuneration policy and the prevalence of overtime work for professional engineers in Finland. The data used in this study are annually collected survey data, for the period 2002-2011. The data represent union members of the Union of Professional Engineers in Finland (UIL ry). The data mainly consist of senior salaried employees. Remuneration policy and the incidence of overtime work are studied by descriptive methods and by regression models. A multinominal logit model is used for the overtime remuneration policy estimation. The method is used to impute missing data for those who do not work overtime. The Tobit regression model is applied as the overtime model. The findings of this thesis are that an individual’s position affects both the incidence of overtime work and remuneration policy. Individuals in a managerial position more often work overtime and bonus payment systems are the main incentive for this. This overtime model is reasonable for those senior salaried employees who are covered by the Working Hour Act. According to the Working Hour Act, those who work, for instance, as a specialist or in an expert position should be compensated for overtime work. In the overtime function for middle management, experts, and salaried employees the income effect initially dominates as remuneration for overtime increases, but finally, as overtime remuneration further increases, more individuals actually tend to work more overtime. As work experience increases, individuals work less overtime at first, but the relationship turns out to be U-shaped. Overtime work is less common for women and those in the public sector. The overtime model provides only a weak positive indication of the incidence of overtime for those who have recently been promoted to a new position or duties. The findings are only partly in accordance with empirical studies. The differences are explained by the characteristics of senior salaried employees. The results of this thesis might stem from the nature of their duties, the working environment and also from individual characteristics. That is why I assume here that long-run career objectives affect the incidence of overtime. In conclusion, there still remains the question of whether short-run or long-run factors have more explanatory power. For example is overtime work motivated by overtime rates or wage levels in the long run.
  • Heinilä, Teemu (2017)
    The role of bank credit in shaping economic recoveries has been the subject of a growing body of literature, especially in the aftermath of the global financial crisis of 2007-2009. Generally, bank lending is thought to be an important source of finance that supports economic growth, indicating that output and bank credit should always move in the same direction. However, the evidence shows that creditless recoveries – episodes in which output recovers without the growth of bank credit – have been common both in advanced as well as in emerging and developing economies. Thus, a more detailed examination of this phenomenon is important to improve our understanding of the nature of creditless recoveries that have been found to be weaker and more protracted than normal recoveries. This thesis analyzes the main determinants of creditless recoveries in (i) advanced and (ii) emerging and developing economies and compares the differences between these country groups. The key determinants of creditless recoveries are studied by using a panel probit estimation method. The data sample includes 32 advanced and 105 emerging and developing economies in the period of 1980-2015. This thesis adds value to existing literature by taking the global financial crisis of 2007-2009 into account. Particular focus will be given to analyzing advanced economies, which have gained less attention in the existing literature. The empirical results of this thesis suggest that a banking crisis that preceded a recession seems to be a major factor increasing the probability of creditless recoveries in both country groups. Furthermore, the results from advanced economies indicate that declining investments preceding an economic downturn will significantly increase the likelihood of creditless recoveries. On the contrary, the findings from emerging and developing economies suggest that sizeable contractions in real GDP as well as currency crises are likely to increase the probability of creditless recoveries. The existing literature offers several hypotheses that might, at least partly, explain the obtained empirical results. A banking crisis typically forces banks to clean up their balance sheets and thus reduce lending, which in turn is likely to increase the probability of creditless recoveries in both country groups. The differences in results between the country groups have been commonly explained as a result of the divergent progress of financial markets. It is likely that advanced economies have more developed financial markets which makes it easier for firms to exploit alternative funding sources. In the event of a liquidity crunch, firms may boost their liquidity and eventually output by curtailing investments and thus borrowing. Creditless recoveries may also be explained by a shift from more to less credit-intensive activities.
  • Asikainen, Tuomas (2016)
    Foreign direct investment (FDI) flows have increased tremendously in the past twenty years, and these investments have grown especially in developing economies. FDI has become an efficient mechanism to increase economic development in poor countries. This thesis opens up the decision-making process of developed countries related to FDI decisions. The main focus is to concentrate on FDI in developing countries, and how they try to find relevant policies in order to attract more FDI flows. Some relevant empirical findings between China and Sub-Saharan Africa are shown to support the benchmark model. The model does not go through every possible aspect of FDI but shows how different southern technology frontiers and risks in production might affect the final FDI flows in developing countries. The benchmark model is a North-South model where the North and South are the developed and developing country, respectively. The main feature of this model is that a northern firm might opt out of doing FDI, if the technology frontier in a southern industry is too low for a northern firm with a relatively high technology. This situation might cause a risk of FDI quality failure, where the production chain in the South fails to complete successfully. This kind of failure is possible, if the skills or knowledge of the southern workers is not high enough. The benchmark model is later extended with the innovative and imitative South in this thesis, and lastly technology-neutral risks are introduced and added to the benchmark model. The benchmark model shows that only firms with intermediate technology levels in the North move production to the South or become multinationals. Additionally, more multinational production increases the technology frontier in the South and eventually decreases the risk of FDI quality failure. This development leads to more FDI flows and widens the technology spectrum of the multinational firms. The aim of governments in developing countries is to increase their technology frontiers in different industries. This thesis goes through many important policy parameters which can improve the technology frontier in the South and eventually lead to more multinational production.
  • Keränen, Henri (2019)
    Interest rates on safe assets have trended downwards for decades. During the Great Recession many developed nations faced a liquidity trap situation as nominal interest approached the zero lower bound which obstructs the stabilization capabilities of conventional monetary policy. At the same time many economies faced sluggish recoveries from the recession. These phenomena help motivate a theoretical model in which a liquidity trap emerges as a result of a drop in the interest rate of safe assets. A simple two-period overlapping generations model is built in which young households earn income and need to save it in order to finance old-age consumption. It is assumed that there are two types of young households with different risk preferences. Risk neutral households invest in the risky asset and are able to borrow from infinitely risk averse households by supplying safe assets to them. The issuance of these safe assets is constrained by two distinct factors. Firstly, there is a financial friction in the sense that safe assets need to be backed up by collateral which ensures repayment. Secondly, the supply of safe assets is limited by the value that the lenders assign to this collateral. In the model, infinitely risk averse households fear that the collateral might drop in value. This has the effect of lowering the supply of safe assets. When fears about the future increase this has an immediate adverse effect in the present. Fears about the future drive down the safe interest rate and after a large enough rise in fears a safety trap emerges as the zero lower bound on nominal rates is met. Safety trap is a form of a liquidity trap which is caused by a decrease in the supply of safe assets. The safety trap environment features unemployment and deflation. The model economy is simulated under different scenarios in order to illustrate the mechanisms at work. In addition to this, the issuance of safe government debt and the raising of the inflation target are considered as cures for the safety trap. A rise of government debt to GDP level helps to mitigate the safety trap by increasing the supply of safe assets while a rise in the inflation target of the central bank allows the economy to reach lower real interest rates with positive nominal interest rates than before.
  • Mukkulainen, Marianna (2017)
    Tässä tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan korkofutuureista laskettujen rahapolitiikkashokkien vaikutuksia bruttokansantuotteeseen, brutto yksityisiin kotimaisiin investointeihin, kuluttajahintaindeksiin sekä yksityisiin kulutusmenoihin. Tutkimuksessa keskitytään Yhdysvaltain finanssimarkkinoihin. Tässä tutkimuksessa syvennytään futuurijohdannaisiin, jotka ovat lyhytaikaisia korkofutuureja.  Fed funds -futuurit ovat korkofutuurit, joita voidaan käyttää ennustamisen työkaluna. Fed funds -futuureilla myös suojaudutaan ja hyödynnetään lyhytaikaisia korkoriskejä, sekä nämä futuurit kuvaavat Fedin tulevaisuuden rahapolitiikan kurssien käyttäytymistä. Fedin koron muutoksien todennäköisyyttä markkinoilla voidaan estimoida käyttämällä fed funds -futuureita. Kirjallisuuskatsauksessa tarkastellaan fed funds -futuureja, tavoitekoron muutoksen ja koron aikarakenteiden mallia sekä paikallisten projektioiden menetelmää. Korkofutuureilla suojaudutaan korkoriskeiltä. Fed funds -futuureilla voi suojautua odottamattomilta muutoksilta lyhytaikaisissa koroissa. Näiden futuureiden avulla treidaajat pystyvät keinotella suhteessa korkojen muutoksiin sekä Fed toimintoihin. Tutkimuksessa käytetään Keaslerin ja Goffin (2007) fed funds -koron määrittelyä. Futuureiden hinnoittelu määrittyy sopimuksen erääntymiskuukauden mukaan. Rahapolitiikkashokkeja lasketaan käyttämällä Gospodinovin ja Jamalin (2015) menetelmää. Tutkimuksessa tarkastellaan Balduzzin ym. (1997) tavoitekoron muutoksen ja koron aikarakenteiden mallia, joka tarkastelee lyhytaikaisten fed funds -korkojen vaikutusta korkojen aikarakenteisiin. Inflaatio-odotuksella ja lyhytaikasilla likviditeetin vaikutuksilla voi vaikuttaa korkoon rahapolitiikassa. Tavoitekorkojen muutoksien odotukset vaikuttavat lyhytaikaisten fed funds -korkojen ja yli yön fed funds -koron kurssieroihin. Empiirisessä tutkimuksessa käytetään Jordan (2004) paikallista projektioiden menetelmää. Hän puolestaan tutki, miten paikallisilla projektioilla saadaan rahapolitiikkashokille impulssivasteen estimointia ja päättelyä. Jordan (2004) tutkimuksessa korkokannan estimointi tapahtuu paikallisella projektioilla sen jokaisessa periodissa. Rahapolitiikkashokkien aineisto koostuu fed funds -koroista ja 30 päivän fed funds -futuureista. Aineiston aikaväli on 31.3.1989 - 30.6.2016. Selitettävien muuttujien aineisto koostuu bruttokansantuotteesta, brutto yksityisistä kotimaisista investoinneista, kuluttajahintaindeksistä ja yksityisistä kulutusmenoista. Tämän aineiston aikaväli on 1.1.1989 - 1.7.2016. Näiden aineistojen frekvenssi on kvartaali. Rahapolitiikkashokin ja bruttokansantuotteen logaritmisia differenssejä kerrottuna sadalla on välillä positiivinen vaikutus, mutta tilastollinen merkitsevyys on matala. Bruttokansantuotteen logaritmisten differenssien kerrottuna sadalla regression impulssivasteista rahapolitiikkashokeille huomataan, että fed funds -laskettujen rahapolitiikkashokeilla on negatiivinen vaikutus bruttokansantuotteeseen. Rahapolitiikkashokeilla ja brutto yksityisten kotimaisten investointien välillä on positiivinen vaikutus. Brutto yksityisten kotimaisten investointien differenssien kerrottuna sadalla regression impulssivasteista rahapolitiikkashokeille huomataan, että myös rahapolitiikkashokeilla on negatiivinen vaikutus brutto yksityisiin kotimaisiin investointeihin.  Rahapolitiikkashokilla on positiivinen vaikutus kuluttajahintaindeksiin, mutta tilastollinen merkitsevyys on matala. Vain edellisen puolen vuoden fed funds -laskettujen rahapolitiikkashokeilla on positiivinen vaikutus kuluttajahintaindeksiin. Rahapolitiikkashokeilla ja yksityisten kulutusmenojen välillä ei ole tilastollista merkitsevyyttä. Vain edellisen neljän vuoden ja kolmen kvartaalin rahapolitiikkashokeilla on negatiivinen vaikutus yksityisiin kulutusmenoihin. Koska tilastollinen merkitsevyys on vain melkein viiden vuoden rahapolitiikkashokki, rahapolitiikkashokkien ja yksityisten kulutusmenojen välillä on tilastollisesti matala merkitsevyys. Vain brutto yksityisillä kotimaisilla investoinneilla on tilastollisesti merkitsevä vaikutus rahapolitiikkashokkeihin. Muiden muuttujilla ei ole tilastollisesti merkitsevää vaikutusta rahapolitiikkashokkeihin.
  • Ruppa, Susanne (2014)
    Vuonna 2008 maailmantalous vajosi taantumaan finanssikriisin seurauksena. Euroopan keskuspankki reagoi taantumaan laskemalla reippaasti ohjauskorkoaan. Euroalueen talous ei kuitenkaan elpynyt alhaisesta korkotasosta huolimatta. Euroalue oli ajautunut keynesiläisestä talousteoriasta tuttuun likviditeettiloukun kaltaiseen tilanteeseen. Likviditeettiloukussa perinteinen rahapolitiikka, eli ohjauskoron säätely, on tehotonta, sillä nimelliskorot ovat jo lähellä nollaa. Tällaisessa tilanteessa finanssipolitiikka nousee varteenotettavaksi talouspoliittiseksi vaihtoehdoksi. Tutkielmassani tarkastelen finanssipolitiikan tehokkuutta kolmen eri talousteorian ja empiiristen tutkimusten näkökulmasta. Näin pyrin vastaamaan kysymykseen, milloin finanssipolitiikka on tehokkaimmillaan. Finanssipolitiikan tehokkuutta mitataan tutkielmassani fiskaalisella kertoimella, joka kertoo kuinka suuri vaikutus harkinnanvaraisella julkisten menojen kasvattamisella on bruttokansantuotteeseen. Talousteoriat ovat paitsi eri mieltä fiskaalisen kertoimen suuruudesta, mutta myös sen vaikutuskanavista. Keynesiläisessä mallissa (Burda & Wyplosz 2009) fiskaalisen kertoimen suuruuteen vaikuttaa marginaalikulutusalttius ja ulkomaan tavaroiden ja palveluiden tuonti ja fiskaalisen kertoimen arvo on aina yli yhden. Neoklassisissa malleissa (Woodford 2010) julkisten menojen kasvu syrjäyttää yksityistä kulutusta intertemporaalisella substituution kautta ja fiskaalinen kerroin on alle yhden. Tutkielmassani eniten huomiota saavissa uuskeynesiläisessä malleissa (Woodford 2010) rahapolitiikan linjaukset vaikuttavat finanssipolitiikan tehokkuuteen. Rahapolitiikan seuratessa Taylorin sääntöä fiskaalinen kerroin on alle yhden, mutta tilanteessa, jossa nimelliskorko on lähellä nollaa, taantuma on pitkäkestoinen ja keskuspankki ei nosta ohjauskorkoa, väliaikainen julkisten menojen kasvattaminen on erityisen tehokasta. Tällaisessa tilanteessa, fiskaalinen kertoimen on arvioitu olevan jopa kahden luokkaa. Empiiriset tutkimukset finanssipolitiikasta eivät anna yksiselitteistä vastausta siihen, mikä talousteoria mallintaa fiskaalia vaikutuksia parhaiten. Narratiivisen menetelmän tutkimusten tulokset tukevat neoklassisia malleja ja SVAR-menetelmällä saadaan tutkimustuloksia, jotka puolestaan puoltavat enemmän nimellisjäykkyyksiä sisältäviä malleja. Rahoitusmarkkinakriisin synnyttämä syvä maailmantaloudellinen taantuma on myös innoittanut taloustieteilijöitä tutkimaan fiskaalisen kertoimen suuruutta empiirisesti talouden eri suhdanteissa. Osassa tällaisia tutkimuksia on osoitettu, että finanssipolitiikan tehokkuus vaihtelee suurestikin talouden eri suhdannevaihteluissa. Taantumassa fiskaalinen kerroin on siis suurempi, kuin normaalina talouden ajankohtana. Euroalueella vastattiin taantumaan aluksi elvyttävällä finanssipolitiikalla, mutta myöhemmin finanssikriisin vaihtuessa velkakriisiksi elvytyksestä siirryttiin menojen leikkauksiin ja verojen kiristyksiin. Kiristävää finanssipolitiikka perusteltiin mm. markkinoiden luottamuksen lisäämisellä. Tutkielmani selvitys finanssipolitiikan tehokkuudesta antaa kuitenkin vahvaa näyttöä siitä, että julkisten menojen leikkaaminen, pitkäkestoisessa taantumassa nimelliskorkojen ollessa lähellä nollaa, on haitallista taloudelle. Toisin sanoen väliaikainen julkisten menojen kasvattaminen likviditeettiloukun kaltaisessa tilanteessa olisi kannattavaa. Likviditeettiloukussa finanssipolitiikan tehokkuuteen on osoitettu vaikuttavan myös julkisten menojen oikea kohdistaminen ja ajoitus (kt. Eggertsson 2011). Lisäksi on hyvä muistaa, että finanssipolitiikan tehokkuus ei tarkoita, että finanssipolitiikkaa olisi järkevää käyttää jatkuvasti suhdannevaihteluiden tasaamisen. Likviditeettiloukku on harvinainen tilanne, jossa perinteinen rahapolitiikka ei tehoa.
  • Saarinen, Erkka (2012)
    Tutkielmassa arvioidaan mikroekonometrisin menetelmin valtion erityisrahoitusyhtiö Finnvera Oyj:n myöntämien vastikkeellisten lainojen ja takausten vaikuttavuutta asiakasyritysten liikevaihtoon, henkilöstömäärään ja liiketulokseen. Tämän lisäksi tarkastellaan, kuinka toistuvasti sama yritys saa Finnveran rahoitusta ja mistä tämä toistuvuus johtuu. Julkisella rahoituksella pyritään paikkaamaan rahoitusmarkkinoilla vallitsevia puutteita. Työssä esitellään Stiglitzin ja Weissin (1981) sekä De Mezan ja Webbin (1987) teoreettiset mallit, joissa tarkastellaan epäsymmetrisen informaation vaikutuksia yritysrahoitukseen. Mallien ristiriitaiset tulokset korostavat yritysrahoitukseen liittyvää teoreettista epävarmuutta. Tutkimusaineisto on epätasapainoinen paneeli Suomessa toimivista pk-yrityksistä vuosilta 2004–2011. Aineisto on koottu useammasta eri lähteestä. Finnveran rahoituksen vaikuttavuutta arvioidaan sekä kiinteiden vaikutusten (fixed effects) paneelimalleilla että erotukset-erotuksissa –vertaistamisen avulla (Heckman ym. 1997). Rahoituksen toistuvuuden tutkiminen perustuu havaittuihin Markovin siirtymätodennäköisyyksiin ja toistuvuuden syyt Finnveran toimihenkilöiltä kerättyihin tietoihin. Paneelimallien estimointitulokset osoittavat, että Finnveran rahoitus mahdollistaa yritysten liikevaihdon ja henkilöstömäärän kasvun. Sen sijaan yritysten kannattavuuden paranemisesta ei saada viitteitä. Erotukset-erotuksissa –vertaistaminen tukee paneelimallien tuloksia. Asiakkuudella on positiivisia vaikutuksia erityisesti henkilöstömäärään. Samalla saadaan kuitenkin näyttöä siitä, että rahoituksen vaikutukset riippuvat vuodesta, jolloin yritys on tullut Finnveran asiakkaaksi. Tulokset ovat yleisesti linjassa niin kotimaisten kuin ulkomaisten vastaavien tutkimusten kanssa. Rahoituksen toistuvuuden tarkastelu osoittaa, että kerran rahoitusta saanut yritys saa sitä melko todennäköisesti myös tulevaisuudessa. Vaikuttaa kuitenkin siltä, että uudempien yritysten luottopäätöksissä Finnvera pyrkii kohti markkinaehtoista rahoitusratkaisua. Toimihenkilöiltä saatu lisäinformaatio havainnollistaa, että pankkien kanssa tehtävät limiittirahoitukset aiheuttavat pääosan tilastollisesta toistuvuudesta. Toistuvuuteen vaikuttavat lisäksi muun muassa pankkien halukkuus riskinjakoon, yrittäjän halukkuus Finnveran rahoitukseen sekä Finnveran halu pitää kiinni vanhoista asiakkaista, joiden toimintalogiikan se on oppinut ymmärtämään. Aineiston analyysin perusteella päädytään tulokseen, että Finnveran rahoitus paikkaa yritysten kohtaamaa markkinapuutetta ja auttaa niitä kasvamaan. Tarkastelujakson lyhyt aikaväli ei mahdollista lopullista päätelmää rahoituksen vaikutuksista kannattavuuteen. Yksi tutkimuksen keskeinen huomioon otettava asia on, estimointeihin valikoituneet koeryhmän yritykset ovat keskimääräistä Finnveran asiakasta vanhempia ja suurempia. Näin ollen tuloksia ei voida yleistää aloittaviin ja pieniin Finnveran asiakkaisiin, jotka muodostavat määrällisesti suurimman asiakasjoukon. Tämä on tiettävästi ensimmäinen tutkimus, jossa voidaan tarkastella Finnveran rahoituksen tarpeellisuutta vuonna 2007 alkaneen finanssikriisin aikana. Tulosten perusteella Finnveran rahoituksella on positiivisin vaikutus juuri kriisin aikana asiakkaiksi tulleisiin yrityksiin. Tämä tulos viittaa siihen, että todellinen markkinapuute vaihtelee suhdannetilanteen mukaan.
  • Wang, Maria (2018)
    A liquidity trap is a situation in which nominal interest rates are near or at zero, and as a result traditional monetary policy interventions to boost economic growth with lower interest rates become ineffective. However, different types of unconventional fiscal and monetary policies can still be used to circumvent the zero lower bound on interest rates. This thesis studies two different kinds of liquidity trap situations: expectations-driven liquidity traps that are caused by exogenous shocks to consumer confidence, and fundamental ones that are caused by discount factor shocks that affect the household's time preferences. The thesis mainly focuses on the expectations-driven traps, and also applies the analysis to the real situation in Japan and its long struggle with low economic growth and near-zero nominal interest rates. In the theoretical setup, the basic fiscal policy tools include government spending and two taxes: a lump-sum tax and labor income tax. In addition, the model includes taxes on consumption and profits. The purpose of the analysis is to see how both conventional and unconventional fiscal policies work in different types of liquidity traps, especially in the expectations-driven case. The main sources that form the basis for the theoretical setup in this thesis are Mertens and Ravn (2014) and Correia, Nicolini and Teles (2013). This thesis also includes a quantitative evaluation that is based on the theoretical model and uses the Japanese economy as a setting. This brings new contribution to existing research, as most of it has taken place in the U.S or Europe. The results of the quantitative evaluation suggest that combining both decreases in labor taxes and increases in consumption taxes could have a stronger effect on inflation than lowering labor taxes alone. However, it is also noted that the actual effects of similar policies in Japan have shown ambiguous results.
  • Widgrén, Miska (2018)
    Internet search engines produce large amounts of data. This thesis shows how the data about internet searches can be used for inflation forecasting. The internet search data is constructed from searches performed on Google. The sample covers eurozone countries over the period from January 2004 to July 2017. The performance of the internet searches is evaluated relative to traditional inflation forecasting benchmark models. The usefulness of the Google searches is evaluated by Granger causality and out-of-sample performance. Furthermore, to study the robustness of the results, the out-of-sample forecasting accuracy has been evaluated in two separate sub-samples. In this study, a simple autoregressive model augmented with internet searches is found to outperform the traditional benchmark models in predicting the month-over-month inflation of the near future. Moreover, the improvement is statistically significant in one-month ahead forecasting accuracy. The Google model also outperforms the benchmark models in year-over-year inflation forecasting. However, the improvement in year-over-year forecasting accuracy is modest. In addition, this thesis shows that the seasonally adjusted internet search data can improve the performance of the Google model slightly. This thesis is related to fast-growing research on employing Google Trends data in economic forecasting. The findings in this thesis require further research in exploiting the internet search data in macroeconomic forecasting.
  • Widgrén, Joona (2017)
    The internet is a popular channel for finding information. The search queries entered into a search engine contain a huge amount of data, but can it be used in economic forecasting? This thesis investigates if Google searches observe the changes in the Finnish housing market. The focus is this thesis is in housing price and home sales forecasting. Google search data is collected from Google Trends. Google Trends provides data describing the popularity of search queries. Google Trends data is updated every day and thus its publishing frequency is much higher in comparison with the official housing market data. The difference in publishing frequency can help to predict changes in housing markets before the official data is revealed. To evaluate the usefulness of Google data a simple model is extended with the Google search index. The forecasting ability of the simple model and the model with Google searches are then compared. Both models are used to forecast the current values of housing market indicators as well as forecasting near-future values. Furthermore, the Granger causality test is employed to investigate if Google searches are useful in forecasting housing market variables. The robustness of the results is studied using the fixed effects model. Also, housing price changes are forecasted as a robustness check. The results suggest that Google searches are useful in forecasting the Finnish housing market. Adding Google searches to a simple housing price forecasting model improves the accuracy of the contemporaneous forecast by 7.5 percent on average. Google searches improve contemporaneous home sales forecast by 15.9 percent on average. Also, the Granger causality test suggests that Google searches are useful in forecasting home sales. The findings are not as clear for Granger causality between Google searches and housing prices. The Granger causality test results suggest that Google searches could be useful in forecasting the current housing prices but not future values. The results also suggest that Google searches improve the near-future forecasts of both indicators.
  • Hämäläinen, Jani (2018)
    Evolutionary game theory models attempt to explain social norms, which defy rational behaviour, have emerged. This thesis researches if evolutionary game theory model using replicator dynamics can forecast shifts in social norms. Viability of two models from two peer reviewed articles are studied. In “An economist perspective on evolution of norms” by Kenneth Binmore and Larry Samuelson provide learning model using ultimatum game. In “Evolutionary stability and social norms” Rajiv Sethi examines how payoff maximizers fare against norm guided players in prisoner’s dilemma model. Both articles postulate that equilibrium strategies of the models are prevailing social norms of the respective systems. Key concepts of evolutionary game theory are presented. John Maynard Smith and George Price were first to introduce evolutionary stable strategy. If all members of population adept a strategy and no mutant strategy can invade the popula-tion, the original strategy is evolutionarily stable. Stability concept is extended to multi-population systems where repli-cator equations govern dynamics of the systems. Concept of evolutionary stable set is presented. In first of the two models, Binmore and Samuelson describe learning model based on ultimatum game with noise com-ponent. Discrete replicator equations describe dynamics of the model. Binmore and Samuelson find equilibria of the ultimatum game model using several sets of simulations with differing conditions. In the second model Sethi creates two stage prisoner’s dilemma model with eight norms based on pure strategies and payoff maximizers. Continuous replica-tor equations describe dynamics of the model. Sethi finds equilibria of the model analytically. Equilibria of the two models are presented. Study of the equilibria is limited to one simulation in ultimatum game model. In prisoner’s dilemma model study is limited to case where payoff maximizer can identify other strategies. Equilibria of these models is compared to features of social norms. Ultimatum game model removed from further study due lack of multiple equilibria. Long run state of the prisoner’s dilemma model is deterministic. Shifts between social norms do not occur. Stochastic effects are introduced. Stochastic process is added to the prisoner’s dilemma model. Stochastic prisoner’s dilemma model is found to be unsuitable for forecasting. Neither of the presented models can be used for forecasting. Models with best reply dynamics are offered as topic of further research.
  • Aaltonen, Samuli (2020)
    The market size of the European professional football market grew from 13,6 billion to 25,5 billion euros during the time-period 2006 – 2017. While the overall market size is constantly growing, the market sizes of some football clubs seem to grow faster than the other ones. Several studies on the field of sports economics suggest that the bigger clubs tend to get bigger and the smaller stay small. One potential explanation for this is so-called glory hunter effect that means a phenomenon where people suddenly form a strong connection to a certain club when the club is enjoying a spell of increasing success. In terms of consumer theory, glory hunting would mean that a football game as a good is more attractive to the customers when their favorite team is doing good in the competition, which would mean higher stadium attendances when a team is higher in the league standings and thus increase the market size for the company that in this case is a football club. In this thesis the glory hunter effect will be studied by a question: How does the competitive success affect the stadium attendance levels in the English Football League Championship during the seasons 2013/2014 – 2017/2018. Competitive success in this thesis is measured by the league standings that the teams had before a game took place. The research question is studied using three different models that use OLS and Prais Winsten methods and are based on both the earlier literature on the field and the dataset used in this thesis. The dataset consists of match by match data from the five seasons that are studied and it contains game-related, club-related and socio-economic variables. The variables that are found to have an effect of some signifficance on the stadium attendance in the earlier literature are included in the regressions with some modifications since the earlier literature on this field mainly focuses on the top-5 national leagues in Europe and there are few earlier studies that consider the case of lower league football. Results obtained with the three models used in this thesis strongly indicate that there is a significant relationship between competitive success and the attendance levels. Depending on the model, the results suggest that one position higher league standing of a home team means a bit over or under a one percent more attendance to the stadium. The effect appears to be highest in the model that does not use a habit variable and has the lowest explanation level from the three models. A high effect that the average attendance level of a team, which is used as a habit variable in the two other models, has on the explained variable that is the actual attendance level at a game suggests that eventhough the competitive success has a significant effect on the stadium attendance, most of the people that go to English Football League Championship games are not that sensitive for short term changes in their teams´ performance in the league. These two findings give support for a theory presented by Sass (2016) which proposes that a longer period of great competitive success has a significant positive effect on the market size of a football club.  
  • Soininen, Ilmari (2012)
    The economies of East Asia, notably China, South Korea and Vietnam, have undergone significant industrial transformations over the last several decades. The rapid transition from largely low-productivity, agriculture-based to high-productivity, modern economies was built on a foundation of manufactured exports to the developed world. In contrast, the economies of Sub-Saharan Africa are still largely resource-based, with little manufacturing export activity. This thesis examines the potential role of exchange rate policy in promoting the manufactured export sector in Africa. Both empirical and theoretical work suggests undervalued domestic currencies played a key role in promoting the growth of manufactured exports in East Asia. The thesis begins by looking at why manufactured exports are important for economic development, looking at both empirical findings and the theoretical underpinnings. The role of exchange rates in the industrialization process is examined, with presentation of both empirical work and an in-depth look at two theoretical models. These findings are then used to assess the potential for a successful strategy of currency undervaluation in Africa. The main finding of the thesis is that such a strategy seems difficult both in terms of economic fundamentals and political reality and could present significant issues going forward.