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The European Union was widely contrived by French leadership, and based on a French system. Until the joining of the United Kingdom in 1973, the status of the French language had remained unchallenged in the European Economic Community. Since then, France has had to extensively defend the significant status of their language in the European Union and, more precisely, in European institutions. With every enlargement, the use of French statistically suffered. Nevertheless, its status as a working language remained the same. The 2004 and 2007 enlargement of the European Union introduced a total of twelve new countries, none of which had French as a primary lingua franca. With a continual rise in the use of English on one side, and the addition of thirteen official languages by the enlargements on the other, France needed to legitimise the important status its language had.historically possessed in the European Union. The fear of a monolingual Europe was apparent and France needed to orchestrate a new language stegy in order to combat the predicted outcome. A makeover of its own language policy was employed, and this study seeks to find the new methods applied by France. As such, an in dept examination of Frances language policy, concentrating on the European enlargement of 2004 and 2007, is presented by using the thirteen point language-spread method developed by Ulrich Ammon. By Analysing French government reports on language issues, and European Union documents on multilingualism, an overview of the political history of the French language inside EU institutions is presented, including an analysis of the historical and important relation France has had with its language. The results of the study conceptualise the French language spread-policy by using two counteracting strategic models. On one hand, France sought to safeguard the status of its language by speaking and demanding French in European institutions, while on the other hand, by presenting their language as one respecting multilingualism and European cultural plurality. With a policy focused on teaching the French language Central and Eastern European elites, the main objective of France was to solidify their language as a second European lingua franca alongside English. In concluding terms, the language-spread policy is presented as something more than merely influencing the European population on the need to know French. It is used as instrument helping a nation achieve political power by having a strong language status in a Union with 23 official languages.

Cytochrome P-450 2B6 (CYP2B6) is a monoxygenase enzyme contributing to the metabolism of drugs and xenobiotics. Significant genetic variability in CYP2B6 exists in different ethnic groups, contributing to interindividual differences in pharmacokinetics and drug response. The aim of this study was to investigate the frequencies of CYP2B6 single nucleotide variations (SNVs) in the Finnish population. The frequencies of nine CYP2B6 SNVs were determined in 261 healthy Finnish volunteers by allelic discrimination with TaqMan 5'-nuclease assays. The variant allele frequencies of CYP2B6 c.419G>A (p.Arg140Gln), c.516G>T (p.Gln172His), c.785A>G (p.Lys262Arg), c.1172T>A (p.Ile391Asn), and c.1459C>T (p.Arg487Cys) were 0.58% (95% confidence interval 0.20-1.7%), 19.3% (16.1-22.9%), 23.8% (20.3-27.6%), 0.4% (0.11-1.39%), and 13.2% (10.6-16.4%), respectively. None of the subjects carried the CYP2B6 c.136A>G (p.Met46Val), c.296G>A (p.Gly99Glu), c.415A>G (p.Lys139Glu), or c.983T>C (p.Ile328Thr) SNVs. The variant alleles of CYP2B6 occur in Finnish population in similar or slightly lower frequencies as described in previous studies with other European Caucasian subjects.

Optical parametric oscillators (OPO) are sources of coherent light, often used to produce laser like light in wavelength regions where ordinary laser operation is challenging. In terms of chemistry, most attractive such a region is in mid-infrared, where strong fundamental vibrational transitions occur. OPOs are based on nonlinear polarization, which some materials exhibit when radiated with strong coherent light and effectively allow transferring optical power from one wavelength region to another. Even a simple OPO setup can offer watt-level of continuous-wave power in mid-infrared. There are ongoing challenges with the stability of OPO output frequency and continuous tuning of the wavelength, both of which are important for a light source used in high-resolution molecular spectroscopy. Theory and literature part of this thesis first covers the fundamentals of the theory behind OPO, centering on a continuous-wave single resonant operation. Afterwards, we look into the more well-known features affecting the stability of the OPO, as well as some common schemes used to combat the instabilities. In the experimental part, we measure and attempt to characterize some features of instabilities we have previously noticed that are not readily explained by known instability sources. The OPO's output wavelength occasionally changes in discrete jumps known as mode hops. There appear to be some preferences to the magnitude of these jumps that do not seem to fit in the current understanding of OPO operation. We followed the frequency changes of a typical singly resonant continuous-wave OPO for longer time periods and offered some possible explanations for the observations. We utilize a few methods to increase the number of mode hops to produce meaningful statistical data.

In today's media landscape, parasocial relationships (PSRs) form a significant aspect of recipients' lives. This study explores the realm of PSRs with favourite characters from TV series belonging to social minorities. Building upon Horton’s and Wohl's theoretical foundation from 1956, research in this area has continually evolved. The study aims to decipher the complex layers of meaning individuals attribute to their PSRs and the subsequent impacts on identity development, personal growth, and perceptions of social minorities. Employing a qualitative approach with semi-structured interviews and thematic analysis, 12 participants aged between 25 and 35, with a favourite character from a social minority, were selected. Four main themes emerged: "Meet the Character," "Self-Perception," "Fulfilling Needs," and "Learning." The results illustrate the profound influence of PSRs on viewers, extending beyond mere entertainment. Participants described their favourite characters as friends, role models, and sources of comfort, forming deep and emotional bonds that contribute to a sense of belonging and support. Furthermore, the study investigates how PSRs actively contribute to personal identity development and self-growth. Participants consciously drew parallels between themselves and their favourite characters, adopting positive traits and fostering a sense of individuality. Additionally, the study sheds light on the educative and transformative role of PSRs in shaping perceptions of social minorities. While participants reported heightened awareness and understanding of challenges faced by these groups, the study emphasizes the importance of accurate and positive representation in the media. For individuals belonging to social minorities, the authentic portrayal of their identity provides a sense of affirmation and acceptance. The findings advocate for further exploration of PSRs in the context of television series, identification, and self-perception, emphasizing their potential to promote understanding, empathy, and informed discourse about social minorities.

The ability to regulate release of noradrenaline, dopamine and GABA is one of the most important roles of the nicotinic receptors. The release of neurotransmitters following stimulation of nicotinic receptors is addressed in the thesis, with focus on dopamine and noradrenaline. Release of neurotransmitters, mediated through nicotinic receptors, has been researched using various methods, including brain slices, microdialysis and synaptosomes. Research using synaptosomes have provided valuable information regarding nicotinic receptors and their ability to regulate neurotransmitter release. Research using receptor specific antagonists have provided information regarding the stoichiometry of nicotinic receptor in different regions of the brain. The primary focus in the thesis, was the characterization of [3H]dopamine release following stimulation of nicotinic receptors with varenicline and acetylcholine, using synaptosomes from mouse striatum. Using a-conotoxin-MII, the [3H]dopamine release was divided into a-conotoxin- MII-resistant and -sensitive release. [3H]Dopamine release was mediated through a6b2*- and a4b2*-receptors from striatal synaptosomes. The involvement of other receptors could not be ruled out, but based on these results and results from previous studies, the involvement of other nicotinic receptors is supposedly low.

Byggnadens kvalitet är en av de vanligaste orsakerna till att det vid fastighetsköp efter köpslutet uppstår meningsskiljaktigheter köpare och säljare emellan. Avgörande är då ifall byggnaden är avtalsenlig till sina egenskaper och ifall den besitter kvalitetsfel enligt JB 2 kap. 17 §. Enligt rådande lagstiftning ansvarar säljaren för fel som funnits på fastigheten vid köpslutet, även om felet har framkommit i ett senare skede. Detta betyder att säljaren även ansvarar för väsentliga kvalitetsfel som varken köparen eller säljaren kände till vid undertecknande av köpeavtalet. Köparen har dock en undersökningsplikt och kan inte hänvisa till ett kvalitetsfel denne borde ha uppmärksammat vid en normal granskning av objektet. Syftet med föreliggande avhandling är att undersöka möjligheterna för säljaren att friskriva sig från ansvar för kvalitetsfel på fastighet som denna enligt lagen skall ansvara för. Enligt JB 2 kap. 9 § får köparens rättigheter begränsas endast genom att det i avtalet preciseras till vilken del det avviker från det lagstadgade. Fokus i avhandlingen ligger på denna paragraf och huruvida avvikelsen kan anses tillräckligt individualiserad för att uppfylla kraven? I avhandlingen observerades att den största utmaningen angående begränsning av ansvar uppstår vid friskrivning gentemot dolda fel samt vid användning av generella friskrivningsklausuler. Eftersom kvalitetsfelen vid dolda fel är okända ter sig individualiseringen av felen problematisk. Enligt färskaste rättspraxis har dock delvis den strikta tolkningen angående friskrivning gentemot dolda fel luckrats upp. Generella friskrivningsklausuler av typen, ”säljes i befintligt skick” har redan i lagförberedningen till JB ansetts som en klausul som kan vara överraskande och oskälig sett ur köparens synvinkel och bör därför lämnas obeaktad. Problemet med generella klausuler är att de vanligtvis endast ger en allmän bild av byggnadens kvalitet och därmed saknar den precisering av sättet på vilket köparens ställning avviker från det lagstadgade. En friskrivning från ansvar för fel är möjlig då klausulen är tillräckligt entydig så att köparen inser innebörden med det förändrade rättsläget. Dock bör noteras att det alltid är fråga om en helhetsbedömning där faktorer tillhörande varje enskilt fall inverkar på slutresultatet.

Kansainvälisen välimiesmenettelyn oikeudellisen tutkimuksen eksponentiaalisesta kasvusta huolimatta, välimiesten syytesuojaan siviilikanteilta on kiinnitetty oikeuskirjallisuudessa ja –tutkimuksessa hyvin vähän huomiota. Välimiesten syytesuojaa käsittelevän akateemisen kirjallisuuden nykytila on edelleen heikko ja rajallinen - huomattava osa siitä on peräisin useiden vuosikymmenten takaa. Oikeuskäytäntö on myös vähissä ja rajallista. Tämän seurauksena suuri määrä välimiesten syytesuojaa koskevia kysymyksiä on edelleen kiistanalaisia. Tästä johtuen aihe on jätetty melkein kokonaan kansallisten tuomioistuinten ja paikallisten lainsäätäjien vastuulle, mikä puolestaan on johtanut merkittäviin eroihin lähestymistavoissa kansainvälisellä tasolla. Suurimmassa osassa kansallisista ja ylikansallisista (esim. UNCITRAL-mallilaki) välimiesmenettelylaeista ei oteta kantaa välimiesten asemaan eikä osapuolten ja välimiesten välisiin suhteisiin - itse asiassa useimmassa laeissa ei viitata osapuolten ja välimiesten väliseen sopimukseen tai muuhun oikeussuhteeseen millään tavoin. Tällainen tutkimuksen ja tiedon tyhjiö on ongelmallista ja yllättävää, kun otetaan huomioon aiheen merkitys ja sen kokonaisvaikutus kansainvälisen välimiesmenettelyn käytäntöön. Nyt voidaan kuitenkin sanoa, että välimiesten syytesuojan osalta on olemassa laaja kirjo vaihtoehtoja. Toisessa päässä on tarjolla lähes absoluuttisen syytesuojan malli ja toisessa epäsuoran vastuun ja vahingonkorvausvelvollisuuden malli. Niiden välimaastosta löytyy myös tietynlainen nimenomainen syytesuoja (engl. express immunity), joka löytyy erityisesti Englannista. Tältä osin Yhdysvaltojen ja Englannin mallit myös eroavat selvästi toisistaan, joten niistä ei yleisesti voida puhu common law –maiden mallina. Kaiken kaikkiaan useimmissa maissa välimiehet nauttivat jonkintasoisesta syytesuojasta toimiensa suhteen. Näin on etenkin Yhdysvalloissa, jossa välimiehille myönnetään melkein ehdoton vapaus siviilikanteista, siitäkin huolimatta, että he toimisivat vilpillisesti, korruptoituneesti tai välinpitämättömästi. Hieman kevyempi versio tästä syytesuojasta löytyy Englannista, jossa välimies menettää syytesuojansa vain, jos osapuolet voivat osoittaa, että välimies on toiminut vilpillisesti tai kohtuuttomasti keskeyttänyt toimensa välimiehenä välimiesmenettelyprosessissa. Koska vilpillisyyttä on vaikea todeta, englantilaiset välimiehet pysyvät melko immuuneina myös tilanteissa, joissa välimies on saattanut toimia tahallisesti. Toisessa ääripäässä on puolestaan pohjoismainen malli, joka ei vain laajenna välimiehen vastuuta tahallisuuteen, mutta myös törkeään huolimattomuuteen. Niinpä voidaankin todeta, että vaikka pohjoismainen malli onkin oikeudellisten ennakkotapausten tai kirjattujen lakien kannalta vähiten kehittynyt malli, se on välimiesten vastuun ja vahingonkorvausvelvollisuuden kannalta tiukin malli. Siksi se luo osapuolille parhaimman turvan välimiehen vastuuseen saattamisesta tilanteissa, joissa välimies on mahdollisesti käyttäytynyt epäasiallisesti. Tämän lisäksi se myös tehokkaasti suodattaa pois pätemättömät henkilöt, jotka saattaisivat muissa maissa hyväksyä nimityksen välimieheksi kevyemmin perustein. Tämä johtuu siitä, että oletus Pohjoismaissa on, että sen sijaan, että välimiehet olisivat automaattisesti vapaita siviilioikeudellisesta vastuusta, välimiehiä arvioidaan ensin hyvän uskon ja törkeän huolimattomuuden kansallisten normien mukaisesti ennen kuin heille voidaan myöntää syytesuoja siviilikanteilta. Näin ollen voidaan päätellä, että pohjoismainen malli todellakin tarjoaa uuden ja tiukemman välimiesten syytesuojaa koskevan mallin, joka eroaa täten merkittävästi Yhdysvaltojen ja Englannin malleista.

For millennia, phenomena of the magnetosphere have intrigued mankind. Studies of the geomagnetic field were first initiated to locate precious minerals, later on continued for purposes of navigation and in the modern times for scientific interest and protection of modern society. Strong changes in the interplanetary magnetic field and pulses of charged particles originating from the Sun pose serious risks to many cornerstones of our lifestyle, such as the power grid, telecommunication and space safety. Understanding the interaction between the interplanetary magnetic field, solar wind and the geomagnetic field is crucial in building protection systems for these critical technologies. Magnetometers are practically the only instrument to monitor changed in the magnetic environment and thus a key instrument in broadening this understanding. In this thesis I describe two projects: development of a digitization algorithm for old, analog magnetometer data and the design and building process of two small magnetometers: one for ground based measurements and one for space applications. The aim of the digitization project was to digitize a magnetic timeseries produced in 1970s and 1980s. The quality of the dataset is very high, but since the data is saved on photographic film as graphs, proper time series analysis is difficult. During the project, I used a custom-made film scanner and developed a MATLAB program to read out the measured values from the scanned films. The aim of the magnetometer building project was to show that it is possible to build science grade magnetometers from commercial-off-the-shelf (COTS) components, enabling magnetometric campaigns where state of the art instruments would be prohibitively expensive. One magnetometer was built based on the Honeywell HMC5883L sensor, controlled by a Raspberry Pi miniature computer. This magnetometer was placed at the Metsähovi Radio Observatory. Another magnetometer, the CubeMAG, was based on the Honeywell HMC2003 sensor and controlled by an STM32F100 microcontroller. This magnetometer will be one of the science payloads of the ESTCube-2 satellite. The magnetometer placed in Metsähovi showed promising results, recording one strong geomagnetic storm which was also recorded with observatory quality instruments at the Nurmijärvi geophysical observatory. The resolution of the HMC5883L was too low to record most interesting features of the storm, but was high enough to show that the Metsähovi observatory is a suitable place for a more sensitive magnetometer. As of writing this thesis, ESTCube-2 is in development and preparing for launch and scientific results from the CubeMAG are not available. Initial laboratory tests show promising results, with the significantly higher resolution of the HMC2003 compared to the HMC5883L being able to record very small changes in the surrounding magnetic field.

The aim of this thesis is to offer an interpretative analysis of the epistemological role of animals in the early modern intellectual culture. I seek to investigate those ideals of knowledge-making that guided early modern people to write about animals in highly intertwined literary genres referred to here as the perspectives of the emblematic worldview, travel writing and anatomy. More specifically, I focus on the knowledge claims related to the elephant as a special, unfamiliar animal that intrigued the authors and readers alike. I regard the representations of this animal as tangible epitomes of the past epistemic practices which endeavoured to capture the visions of animals into the anthropocentric cognitive universe. My purpose is to make a critical reading of these practices by asking what the desired forms of making zoological knowledge were, and how the knowledge of this type was acquired and produced in practice during the early modern era. The timeframe of this study covers the period from 1620s to 1720s. My textual source material consists of natural historical treatises, religious sermons, fable books, geographical atlases, travel writings, advertising pamphlets, local newspapers, medical monographs and anatomical observational reports all of which have been published in England. In addition to these written sources, I also interpret several frontispieces and other images which are taken from these diverse literary products. I analyse this material by relying on the constructivist framework of the new intellectual history and its emphasis on language and textuality. In the previous research, this interdisciplinary mode of study has been referred to as “cultural studies of scientific knowledge”. More specifically, I seek to follow the perspective used by Katherine Acheson who has studied the connections between disparate fields of knowledge and their shared illustrative conventions during the early modern era by extending the field of literary criticism towards visual culture studies. In the course of my study, I address also other scholars who have paid attention to the literary culture of this era, applied rhetorical analysis to historical sources, and theorised about past epistemic practices. These scholars include James J. Bono and Peter Harrison, who have investigated the religious epistemology of the early modern intellectual culture, Jonathan P. A. Sell and David Spurr, who have explored the rhetorical universe of travel writing, and Ken Alder, Bruno Latour and Steven Shapin, who have contributed to the theoretical study of the past forms of knowledge-making. The results of this study imply that the perspectives of the emblematic worldview, travel writing and anatomy were characterised by distinct ideals of knowledge-making which guided the authors to give different interpretations of animals and their meaning in the world. For the theologians and other writers embracing the emblematic worldview, the created universe was a symbolic network of religious signs where idealised animal characters delivered heavenly wisdom to the sinned humans. Although some of the religiously oriented travel writers seem to have shared this view, the authors in this genre aimed, for the most part, to provide secular descriptions of the exotic beasts that both terrified and entertained the curious observers in the tropics. Their desire to map the fauna of such foreign locales by utilising the practices of scholarly observing reflects their adherence to the new sense-based epistemology and its emphasis on the first-hand witnessing of natural facts. This epistemology appears to have dominated particularly the worldview of the physicians and other practitioners of anatomy who examined myriads of animal bodies in order to comprehend and marvel the divine mechanics hidden beneath their skin. Nevertheless, this study suggests that there were also other, somewhat conflicting tendencies that affected the early modern knowledge-making practices. Firstly, the authors could employ knowledge claims simultaneously from different literary genres thus blurring the boundaries between the three perspectives of the emblematic worldview, travel writing and anatomy. With respect to the elephant, for example, the theologians could rely on the latest natural historical information when they elaborated the nature of the biblical Behemoth. Similarly, the anatomists did not hesitate to enhance their dissection reports of the deceased elephants with references to travellers’ tales and prevailing religious beliefs. Secondly, the tension between the old and the new epistemic practices was often complex and multifaceted. Although the authority of the emblematic worldview was declining in the face of the new sense-based epistemology, it seems that some remains of this traditional explicatory framework did survive in the margins of the knowledge-making practices. These remaining traces of the emblematic worldview derived from theology, and reflected the heavy influence of religion that appears to have permeated every aspect of the early modern intellectual culture. It was especially the old idea of nature as the second divine book that continued to inspire the authors across the different genres. The theologians and the anatomists, who were most prone to utilise this trope, did clearly modify the meaning of the metaphor according to the changing epistemic practices. Accordingly, the natural epistle that the anatomists read was an open and direct book which lacked the symbolic significations that could still be found from the interpretations of the theologians and other authors who read the divine word by esoteric means. Regardless of their differing backgrounds, however, all of these authors contributing to zoological study during this era seem to have regarded animals through the anthropocentric religious framework where brute beasts existed below human beings and outside the established norms of moral reference applied to men. In this context, it would seem that the common ideal for reading the book of nature was derived from the biblical myth told in the Genesis which eulogised Adam’s capability of naming and mastering the animals in Paradise. Apparently, this was one of the powerful ancient legends that could still stubbornly resist the prevalent trend of relinquishing all traces of the emblematic lore.

Urban energy transitions play a key role in achieving climate targets and keeping the climate crisis from escalating. The district heating system of Helsinki has been characterised as a path-dependent and locked in system that will face difficulties in transitioning away from fossil fuels. In 2021 the city owned energy company Helen announced that it will quit coal burning in 2024, which is five years ahead of the national coal ban prohibiting coal use for energy in 2029. The coal phase out of Helsinki is a concrete example of a demanding coal phase out in a northern city with high energy demand. This thesis aims at answering the research question on how the multilevel policy mix, consisting of policy instruments on the municipal level, the national level, and the international level, contributed to the coal phase out of Helsinki. Through a case study approach relying on ten expert and stakeholder interviews as well as complementary material consisting of key strategy documents, this thesis aims to widen the understanding of the role of policy and politics in sustainability transitions and urban energy transitions. This study covers both policymaking and implementation processes as well as system impacts of the policy mix contributing to the coal phase out of Helsinki. Through empirical reviews the thesis contributes to the conceptualisation of policy mixes on multiple governance levels by studying the combined impact of policy instruments formed at the local, national, and international level. Regulatory policies on the national and international level (emissions trading, national ban on coal, taxation etc.), policies supporting low-carbon solutions on the national level (tax-exemptions) and climate target setting as well as support for low-carbon solutions on the municipal level (deregulation, innovation competitions) altogether contributed to the coal phase out. The findings of this study are in line with previous research emphasising the destabilisation of fossil fuel regimes to achieve transitions towards sustainability. Incorporating the elements of policy processes and strategies as well as policy effects and feedbacks into the concept of policy mixes is important to assess the efficacy and long-term impacts of policy mixes. The coherence of policies on multiple governance levels and the balance between regime destabilising and niche creating policies is also important in ensuring transitions towards sustainability. The results of this study support previous research findings on cities being important arenas and actors for sustainability transitions. Policies from different governance levels intersect on the urban level and decisions on infrastructure transformation are made on the municipal level.