Browsing by study line "Solu- ja kehitysbiologia"

Tropomyosins (Tpm) are coiled-coil proteins, which wind around actin filaments to form head-to-tail oligomers. Tpms control actin filament growth, movement and interactions with other actin-binding proteins like myosins and cofilin. Tpms play essential role in the construction and stabilization of complex three-dimensional actomyosin contractile structures called stress fibers, because Tpms regulate structural and functional attributes of actin filament populations. In mammals, there are 4 TPM genes encoding above 40 TPM variants, giving rise to many functional Tpm protein isoforms. They are responsible for several physiological mechanisms in cell such as morphogenesis, cytokinesis, vesicle transportation, metabolism, motility, organ development, and signaling. Even though several studies have been conducted to determine structures and functions of various Tpms, many questions are still to be answered about Tpm2.1 and its significance in cells. So far, Tpm2.1 isoform has been a difficult protein to study due to poor success rate at achieving its complete depletion from the cell. Its involvement in cytokinesis, cell movement, cancer progression, and association with mechanosensing ability of cells were recently reported, and this raised the interest of researchers to focus on unveiling its precise cell biological function. Conditional deletion, degradation or inactivation of a protein helps to determine its function in cells. A new revised Auxin Inducible Degron version-2 (AID2) approach employs the cell´s own ubiquitin mediated protein degradation process, ensuring efficient and rapid depletion of target protein by the help of expressing OsTIR1(F74G) auxin-receptor mutant in presence of 5-phenyl-indole-3 acetic acid (5-Ph-IAA) ligand. In this study, we established a pipeline to identify Tpm2.1’s functions using AID2 technology by integrating OsTIR1(F74G) mutant at AAVS1 locus of the homozygous knock-in U2OS clones, containing mAID-msGFP2-TPM2.1 fusion insert at their endogenous TPM2.1 locus. We aimed to deplete Tpm2.1 from cells using this approach by inducing with 5-Ph-IAA and observe the direct, immediate phenotypes during Tpm2.1 degradation. We succeeded in achieving almost complete Tpm2.1 depletion. By this approach, we revealed that Tpm2.1 controls actin reorganization, stress fiber stability, and maturation of focal adhesions in cultured cells. To our knowledge, Tpm2.1 is the first actin-binding protein to be studied using AID2 approach, and the promising outcome brings hope to study other complicated actin-regulating proteins with this approach.

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells are genetically modified usually autologous T cells expressing de novo designed CAR that binds a specific antigen on the surface of the cancer cells, inducing T cell receptor-independent activation and cytotoxic response against the targeted cancer cells. While CAR T cells have been shown to offer effective treatment in acute lymphoblastic leukemia, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, and multiple myeloma, several resistance mechanisms can lead to CAR T cell exhaustion characterized by impaired functions and the expression of inhibitory receptors. The Finnish Red Cross Blood Service has developed novel CARs, differing in structure from the ones currently published. Since the evasion of CAR T cell exhaustion is considered one of the key objectives in the development of CAR T cell therapy, this Master’s thesis project aimed to create a working method to determine the exhaustion of CAR T cells in vitro after long-term repeated stimulation. In order to induce and measure exhaustion, CAR T cells were produced and activated ex vivo in the presence of IL-2 or IL-7/IL-15 cytokines, cultured long-term and repeatedly stimulated by exposure to target cells. CAR T cell cytotoxicity and expansion were determined and the expression of various inhibitory receptors was analyzed. The method enabled the comparison of the designed CAR T cell candidates and the positive control CD19-CD28ζ CAR T cells in long-term cytotoxic potency. In addition, it helped to reveal the surprising difference between IL-2 and IL-7/IL-15 cytokines and their impact on CAR T cell exhaustion. Although CAR T cells produced with IL-2 had poorer expansion during CAR T cell production than CAR T cells produced with IL-7/IL-15, they showed lower expression of exhaustion-related markers supported by better survival, proliferation and cytotoxic activity during long-term repeated stimulation assay.

Over the past years sugar consumption has seen great increases worldwide, together with a rise in the prevalence of metabolic diseases. There is a growing need for a comprehensive characterisation of the genes involved in sugar metabolism, yet the mechanisms by which cells sense and respond to sugars in vivo have remained incompletely understood. Here, I analyse members of a protein family best known for their regulation of differentiation during development with regards to their role in sugar metabolism. The Hairy and Enhancer of Split (HES) protein family are a group of basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) transcription factors that function as major downstream effectors of the Notch signalling pathway. In mammals, the HES proteins have mostly been studied for their role in cell differentiation, but HES1 has been implicated in metabolic control. Drosophila has several transcription factors belonging to the HES family, including Hairy and seven bHLH transcription factors located in the Enhancer of split complex (E(spl)-C). The E(spl)-C bHLH transcription factors display high homology and are considered to be genetically redundant, and therefore little is known about their individual functions. The other HES family members in Drosophila have not previously been linked to metabolic regulation, but Hairy has been shown to repress the tricarboxylic acid cycle. In light of the findings implicating HES1 and Hairy in the regulation of metabolism, I systematically investigated the role of the HES transcription factors in sugar metabolism. By using the GAL4/UAS system in Drosophila melanogaster, I knocked down gene expression of each of the family members, and raised the flies on diets varying in sugar content to identify possible sugar intolerance phenotypes. Here, I show that knockdown of one of the E(spl)-C bHLH genes led to severe sugar intolerance that affected both survival and organismal growth, but did not alter the levels of circulating carbohydrates and storage lipids as measured with colorimetric assays and lipid staining. Furthermore, I identify the tissues in which this transcription factor functions to provide sugar tolerance. Using analysis of publically available chromatin-immunoprecipitation sequencing data coupled with quantitative RT-PCR, I uncover mTOR target Thor/4E-BP as a putative target gene. Additionally, I show that Hairy is similarly required for complete sugar tolerance, but that the mechanism differs from the E(spl)-C bHLH transcription factor. Hairy binds to and positively regulates expression of genes involved in glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway, suggestive of a cooperation with earlier known regulators of sugar sensing. In conclusion, I have shown that only two HES family members are involved in the regulation of sugar metabolism and that their regulatory mechanisms are distinct, implying that the HES family members have more diverse roles than previously assumed.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is caused by the accumulation of unfolded proteins in the ER, which leads to the activation of unfolded protein response (UPR) through three transmembrane protein sensors located in the ER membrane. The sensors correspond to three branches of the UPR, namely protein kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK), activating transcription factor 6 (ATF6), and inositol-requiring enzyme 1 (IRE1) branches. Upon ER stress, IRE1 dimerizes and oligomerizes, and its endonuclease domain is activated. It specifically targets X-box-binding protein 1 (XBP1) mRNA, from which a 26 nt intron is spliced. This allows a complete translation of spliced XBP1 mRNA into a functional protein that acts as a transcription factor. Together with the other pathways, the UPR leads to a decrease in the protein folding load by causing a reduction in the general level of protein translation, and by inducing the expression of protein folding machinery. However, if the UPR is activated continuously for a long time, the apoptotic pathway will be triggered, and the cell will die. ER stress and UPR are associated with various disorders, such as some types of cancer, diabetes, chronic inflammatory syndromes, and particularly neurodegeneration. For example, in Parkinson’s disease, it was suggested that prolonged ER stress induces the extensive apoptosis of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra pars compacta region of the midbrain. This hinders the normal functioning of the nigrostriatal pathway, and hence results in the progressive development of Parkinson’s motor symptoms. In order to study the regulation or IRE1 branch of the UPR, and to identify the ER-stress-modulating compounds, a human luciferase reporter cell line (XBP1-NLuc) was created in this work. The reporter was expressed when IRE1 splicing was activated, since the XBP1 intron fragment was fused to the Nano luciferase gene. The expression of the reporter was observed with luciferase assay at several time points during treatments. The treatments were done with ER stress inducers thapsigargin and tunicamycin, and with IRE1 inhibitors KIRA6 and 4μ8c, or the combination of those. Quantitative PCR (qPCR) was used to validate the expression of the reporter and to monitor the expression of the other branches of the UPR. Additionally, the oligomerization of IRE1 was observed with IRE1-GFP cell line that was treated identically to the XBP1-NLuc cell line, fixed, stained for nuclei, and imaged with fluorescent microscopy. After imaging, the IRE1-GFP clusters were analysed and quantified with CellProfiller and CellAnalyst softwares. Both cell lines were used to test the effect of neurotrophic factors CDNF, MANF, and MANF mutant isomers on the UPR with and without tunicamycin treatment. Collectively, the experiments confirmed that XBP1-NLuc cell line was created successfully and that it accurately reports IRE1 splicing activity. As expected, ER stress treatment increased the reporter expression, while IRE1 inhibitors decreased the expression of the reporter. qPCR revealed that the other observed UPR markers were activated as well upon thapsigargin treatment, however, they were not decreased with the treatment with IRE1 specific inhibitors. In line with XBP1-NLuc cell line, the IRE1-GFP cell line demonstrated an increased oligomerization of IRE1 upon ER stress induction. The KIRA6 inhibitor of IRE1, which prevents IRE1 oligomerization, decreased the formation of IRE1-GFP clusters. Additionally, the IRE1-endonuclease-activity inhibitor 4μ8c induced the formation of IRE1-GFP clusters. Curiously, the distribution of the intensity of IRE1-GFP clusters was bimodal and could point to two manners of IRE1 clustering and/or activation. Together, the experiments done with cells transfected with CDNF, MANF or MANF mutants, suggested that the tested neurotrophic factors decreased IRE1 oligomerization and its activation. However, there were substantial problems in the quantification of viable cells, which should be considered in the interpretation of these results. No significant difference among the tested neurotrophic factors was observed. In conclusion, the XBP1-NLuc reporter cell line provided a reliable reporter of IRE1 endonuclease activity, whose expression is increased during the ER stress. Together with IRE1-GFP cell line, it revealed the amount of IRE1 oligomerization and activation under various treatments and at different time points relative to treatments. Due to the effectiveness and accuracy, the XBP1-NLuc cell line can be further used in studying the regulation and activation of IRE1, as well as for the identification of ER-stress modulating molecules, which can be used for development of novel treatments for ER stress associated diseases, such as Parkinson’s disease.

In the past few years, there has been an increased consideration on the stem cell niche as a key factor to regulate stem cell maintenance and differentiation. Research on characterization of the stem cell microenvironment boosted after the determination of long-term three-dimensional (3D) tissue cultures, or so-called organoids. Organoids are derived from stem cells which self-organize in 3D multicellular structures upon embedding in an extracellular matrix mimic, such as Matrigel®. Their main advantage is these structures resemble the architectural distribution of the tissue of origin in vivo. Likewise, the cellular components of organoids vary depending on multiple variables as the tissue of origin and the growth factors they have access to. As a result of advances in this technique, some stem cell niches have been well characterized, as in the case of intestinal stem cells (ISCs), while others remain elusive as in case of the human gastric stem cells (hGSCs). Along with the remarkable development of 3D cultures, the interest of ECM proteins in stem cell regulation increased. Matrigel® is a rich matrix composed of several adhesive proteins such as laminins and collagens. Aside from providing structural support, the extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins forming this matrix contribute to cell adhesion and signalling. However, Matrigel® composition cannot be modified or even well-characterized due to its origin from Engelbreth-Holm-Swarm (EHS) mouse sarcoma cells. Additionally, it has been demonstrated that contains a high batch-to-batch variability. Other techniques to study the effects of individual ECM proteins have been used such as coating of tissue culture plates with ECM proteins. However, the biomechanical properties in this model are far from being physiological. Therefore, although preliminary results can be obtained using this technique, results extrapolation to an in vivo model can be questioned. To date, there is a lack of a reproducible, high-throughput and reliable technique to test the effect of ECM proteins on human gastric stem cells behavior. This Master’s thesis presents a novel transwell device containing a polyethylene glycol (PEG)-based hydrogel enriched with human ECM proteins to test their effect on human gastric stem cell regulation. Preliminary results showed that gastric organoid-derived epithelial cells (GODE) grown on hydrogels with ECM proteins that are localized at base of the gastric glands, such as Laminin-211, had a higher stem cell marker expression than the control grown on ECM proteins that are uniformly localized in vivo. Additionally, when GODE were grown on hydrogels containing ECM proteins that are localized at the surface of the native gastric epithelium, expression of surface gastric mucins markers was enhanced. These preliminary results highlight the utility of the optimized transwell device to further shed light on how the human gastric stem cells are regulated and what is the effect of the ECM proteins surrounding them.

Clathrin-mediated endocytosis is the most common pathway by which cells internalize cargoes from the membrane. It is a critical process in cell communication, development, and homeostasis. In order to study endocytic dynamics, it is critical that one can clearly distinguish receptors that have entered the cell from those which remain on the cell membrane. Current techniques for investigating endocytosis rely on removing membrane-bound components with harsh treatments which may interfere with cell physiology, and often depend on antibodies which are not widely available and - even when they are - may give unreliable signals and may affect receptor behavior and internalization rates. Additionally, a large portion of studies on clathrin-mediated endocytosis have been done on a single receptor, the transferrin receptor. Here we have developed a new assay which resolves the above issues through use of a novel protein probe. This fusion protein will allow us to resolve the issues with current endocytic assays mentioned above, and in theory can be used to study any membrane receptor which is endocytosed. Our preliminary results show that we can use our protein to effectively track endocytosed receptors without interference from signal of receptors remaining on the cell membrane. This shows that our protein may be a powerful tool for studying endocytosis across a wide variety of membrane-bound receptors.

Tree shoot architecture research is important due to its significance in fields such as timber production, fruit and nut production and aesthetics of common areas. Also, research on genetic factors that regulate shoot and root system architecture might provide novel methods to store more carbon in forests and, hence, mitigate global warming in the future. LAZY1 is one of the major genes that affects branch and tiller angle in herbaceous and woody species such as Arabidopsis, rice and peach tree. LAZY1 has been under scrutiny over a decade but its molecular function remains unknown. However, it is known that lazy1 mutation affects polar auxin transport. Here it is studied how LAZY1 affects initial branch angle, fiber length and reaction wood development in silver birch (Betula pendula). Also, transcript levels of few shoot architecture related genes were analyzed. LAZY phylogenetic analysis provided evidence of a duplication of LAZY1 in three studied tree species (Betula pendula, Prunus persica, Populus trichocarpa), duplicated genes are here named LAZY1a and LAZY1b. Plant material employed in this study was a segregating population (50:50) of back-cross 1 of weeping birch (B. pendula ´Youngii´) which has a truncated lazy1a. Histological samples of branches were prepared by cryo-sectioning, stained with carbohydrate binding Alcian Blue and lignin binding Safranin dyes to reveal patterns of tension wood development. Due to the large size of branch sections, samples were imaged with a microscope and the images were merged together in a Photoshop application. Branch angles were measured manually with a protractor (angle) tool from stem to the middle of a branch. The data was analyzed using mixed linear models due to the nature of used plant material. We could not use clones because of major issues in in vitro propagation. Branch samples were macerated, fibers imaged and measured by ImageJ software. LAZY1a gene expression levels were analyzed by RT-qPCR method. RNA-sequence analysis indicated that the expression pattern of LAZY1a and LAZY1b is similar in B. pendula. However, one should construct a promoter-reporter line to study with better resolution if their expression is spatially analogous. Initial branch angle was significantly different in wild type compared to lazy1a mutant. For future, one could generate single and double knock out lines of lazy1a/b to study if they have cumulative effect on the branch angle, an important factor in timber quality. Tension wood formation was difficult to quantify with the employed method, due to issues in segregating G-layered tension wood from thick-walled reaction wood. A chemical analysis of cellulose content might provide a more objective method to observe tension wood in branches. RT-qPCR method indicated that LAZY1a transcript levels are higher in wild type compared to mutant. A complementation or knock down experiment would provide sound evidence that lazy1a induces the weeping phenotype. X-ray diffraction method could be employed to study the orientation of cellulose microfibril angle in branches of the wild type vs. mutant. Generation of effective tensional stress requires a cellulose microfibril angle less than 10 and this angle is affected by auxin concentration. It is possible, that this angle is larger in lazy1a due to defect in polar auxin transport.

Establishing and maintaining cell polarity is critical to all multicellular organisms. Apicobasal polarity is a type of cell polarity specific to epithelial cells, which is established and maintained by three distinct protein complexes. Among them, the Scribble (Scrib) complex plays a role as a basolateral determinant. Scrib is a scaffold protein with multiple functions, including maintenance of the basolateral polarity of epithelial cells and a tumor suppressor, acting as a regulator of the Hippo signalling, an evolutionarily conserved pathway which controls organ size through regulation of cell proliferation and apoptosis by inhibiting the transcriptional co-activator protein Yorkie (Yki). A recent experiment proposed that Scrib is involved in maintaining tissue homeostasis through relaying apicobasal polarity regulation across the tissue. This mechanism can be used both by normal cells to rescue hypomorphic scrib cells and by loss of scrib cells to spread loss of polarity. The signal is likely related by cell-cell contact and the junctions present in epithelial cells may be involved in this communication. This project aims to identify the genes involved in tissue homeostasis through intercellular alignment of apicobasal polarity together with Scrib. First, a screening protocol was established by studying genetic interactions and tissue structure. Second, a systematic screening was carried out by using deficiency lines of left arm of the third chromosome in Drosophila. Fly stock expressing spatially and temporally controlled scrib RNAi was established and crossed with deficiency lines to identify genes that have synergy with Scrib. The wing discs of the offspring were dissected, imaged, and the phenotypes were sorted into categories according to the degree of overgrowth. Five strong candidates and four candidates with milder phenotype were identified. The results show the screening method is robust and suitable to carry out a finer, single gene level screen of the candidates, as well as screening for additional candidates in the rest of the Drosophila genome. The identified candidates provide new leads to develop the theorical model of intercellular alignment of apicobasal polarity. Understanding how apicobasal polarity is maintained in the dynamic environment of a living organism is important for physiological and pathological conditions. This study provides an important insight into further understanding tissue development and homeostasis.

The intestinal epithelium is one of the fastest renewing tissues in mammals. Intestinal stem cells (ISC) are responsible for producing all differentiated cell types of the intestinal epithelium, through transit amplifying generations. ISCs reside in the crypt domain of the intestine which are pit like structures located between villi protrusions. The ISCs are interspersed between Paneth cells, which along with cells of the surrounding mesenchyme act as the stem cell niche. ISCs have been reported to divide symmetrically to produce two identical daughter cells. However, the symmetry of these divisions has been concluded based on mathematical modelling which do not account for the possibility that a very small population of ISCs would divide asymmetrically or for qualitative asymmetry occurring in these divisions. Asymmetric cell division is a process by which daughter cells gain different amounts or different qualities of certain factors which lead to their differing fates. Asymmetric division can include asymmetric segregation of organelles such as mitochondria or peroxisomes, which have both been shown to be asymmetrically apportioned in yeast mitosis. Peroxisomes are single membrane enclosed organelles which function in many metabolic processes, most importantly in lipid and reactive oxygen species (ROS) metabolism. Mitochondria have been reported to be age selectively apportioned during cell division of mammary epithelial stem like cell. The same has been shown to occur for peroxisomes based on unpublished data from my host lab. This prior research of the lab also indicates that selective peroxisomal apportioning would require peroxisomes to be specifically gathered at the centrosomes from metaphase onwards to control their inheritance. In this thesis I will look into peroxisomal dynamics in the intestinal crypt. The first aim is to verify the Lgr5-EGFP-creERT2 x LSL-SNAP-tag-PTS1 mouse model, by checking that the SNAP-tag-PTS1 fusion protein properly localizes to peroxisomes. Secondly, I aim to look into the ages of peroxisomes in ISCs compared to differentiated cells, concentrating on Paneth cells. The third and final aim is to look into the apportioning of old and young peroxisomes during stem cell division. This aim includes looking into the peroxisomal localization at metaphase and checking how peroxisomes are expected to be inherited in later mitotic cells. The SNAP-tag-PTS1 construct adequately co-localizes with the peroxisomal membrane protein 70, also at the old SNAP labelling time point chosen for the following experiments. The SNAP-tag-PTS1 old labelling does not co-localize with the lysosomal associated protein Lamp1 to a high extent, indicating that the peroxisomes with the labelling are not in autolysosomes in amounts that would hamper with the results of the following experiments. There is no noticeable difference between the age contents of peroxisomes in stem cells versus Paneth cells. However, when moving up from base of the crypt to the transit amplifying zone there seems to be an increasing number of peroxisomes, as would be expected based on previous reports of peroxisomes in the intestinal epithelium. At metaphase it seems that approximately half of the cells have a tendency to gather peroxisomes at one centrosome to a higher extent than elsewhere in the cell. Interestingly this condensation was rarely seen at both centrosomes in a given cell. A large heterogeneity was observed when looking into the apportioning of old and young peroxisomes in anaphase or later on in mitosis. A majority of the dividing cells apportioned approximately equal amount of young and old peroxisomes to both daughter cells. Some divisions apportioned inequal amounts of peroxisomes to the daughter cells, with one daughter getting more peroxisomes overall. The daughter cell getting more peroxisomes was more likely to get significantly more of the old label than its pair. This indicates that there could be a small subpopulation of intestinal stem cells that divide their peroxisomes asymmetrically qualitatively as well as quantitatively, however, to definitively conclude this further research is required.

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) is a diverse group of cancers defined by their localization in the head and neck region. These cancers are recognized for the heterogeneity between tumors from separate patients (inter-patient heterogeneity) as well as between cell types within individual tumors (intra-tumoral heterogeneity). Heterogeneity poses a major clinical challenge by making accurate diagnosis and selection of treatment options difficult. This study aims to improve precision of prognosis, quantify heterogeneity in HNSCC, and address its functional implications using two approaches: (1) profiling a set of HNSCC patient tumors using multiplexed immunohistochemistry and single-cell computational methods to identify a set of phenotypic descriptors correlating with differences in survival; and (2) using patient-derived cancer cell lines to investigate which cellular features correlate with relevant functional properties such as plasticity, invasiveness, clonogenicity and tumorsphere-forming abilities of cells. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) as well as excistence of stem cell like states have been implicated in cancer aggressiveness and poor outcomes. We thus focused on identification of putative EMT, partial EMT (pEMT) and stem cell-like states. Based on a combination of morphometric analyses and stem cell- and EMT marker profiling, our computational method assigned patients into groups with different survival probabilities, and these patients’ tumors were found to differ in their expression of the stem cell transcription factor Sox2, the EMT transcription factor Slug, and in their morphometric parameters. Functional studies of patient-derived cell lines found that significant differences exist in protein expression, morphological features and cell behaviours between cell lines in vitro, and that inhibiting EMT promotes clonogenicity and can increase Sox2 expression. Thus, this study highlights important heterogeneous patient phenotypes and cellular behaviours in HNSCC, and implicates the need for a multimodal approach to diagnosis and therapy of this cancer.