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Soil compaction has a major effect on the soil fertility. It is important to find the compacted regions in the field for preventive actions. With a soil penetrometer, it is possible to find compactions from the soil. Hand-operated penetrom- eters are physically demanding to operate. By automating the measurement with a machine, the stress can be removed from the user, acquire higher amounts of data and achieve more accurate and consistent data, in comparison to manual measurement techniques. Machine automation achieves constant penetration speed and higher forces than manual op- eration while being not dependent on the user. The built automated penetrometer (AP) can be attached to an ATV or other small offroad machine such as a field robot. The automated penetrometer was built using a S-force sensor and ballscrew operated by a stepper motor. The force sensor is mounted on a sled running on linear guiderails. The system control is done with an Arduino-microcontroller and data processing with a RasberryPi – minicomputer. Surface moisture is measured with the Meter Teros 10 – capac- itive soil moisture sensor during the operation. Initial tests were done in the Viikki research farm, Helsinki, Finland on a perennial grass ley field. The same measure- ments were done from the same areas with proven commercial Eijelkamp soil penetrologger. AP was found to be prac- tical and useful measurement device. With the material costs of 2000 euros, it is significantly cheaper compared to the commercial device. AP data had smaller variance compared to Eijelkamp. Open-source code makes easy to do modifi- cations and changes on the machine. Integrated computer makes real time data collection and processing easy. The developed measurement device will be later implemented to an automated field robot use.

Soil respiration is a process in which soil organic carbon is released in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. In boreal forests, soil carbon storage is particularly high relative to the carbon storage of aboveground biomass. Due to the large size of the forest areas of the biome, boreal forests’ soil organic carbon storage is globally is significant. The cool climate drives the formation of soil carbon storage in boreal regions. With climate change, the growing conditions can become drier and warmer than they have been in the past, which can accelerate the carbon release from soil to the atmosphere, thereby further warming the climate. Soil respiration is divided into two distinct processes: heterotrophic respiration where carbon dioxide is released from decomposi-tion of dead organic matter, and autotrophic cellular respiration of plant roots and root associated fungi. Increase in heterotrophic respiration in relation to litter formation rate implies a decrease in the carbon stock of the soil, whereas increase in autotrophic respiration implies an acceleration in the activity of the photosynthesizing biomass and, at the same time, an increase in the amount of carbon stored in the root system. The effect of drought on the activity of both components has been studied extensive-ly, and it appears that autotrophic terrestrial respiration responds to drought more slowly and less strongly in the boreal forest ecosystem. Atmospheric carbon dioxide contains two stable carbon isotopes, carbon-12 and carbon-13, of which C3 plants prefer lighter carbon-12 in photosynthesis. The relationship between these carbon isotopes is expressed with δ13C-value, and the discrimina-tion of carbon-13 in photosynthesis reflected in the cellular respiration of the autotrophic organisms. As a result, the δ13C-value of autotrophic respiration has been found to be lower than the δ13C value of heterotrophic respiration, as carbon-13 is discriminated less in the heterotrophic respiration. However, it has been found that during a drought period there is less discrimination of car-bon-13 in plants’ carbon assimilation, as the photosynthesizing plant may not be as selective for the carbon as when it is not exposed to drought. Thus, there is a difference in the δ13C-value of the soil respiration components, but it becomes smaller as the components experience drought. The purpose of this study was to determine whether the respiration rate of the components vary in different ways as they experi-ence drought by examining whether autotrophic respiration decreases more slowly than heterotrophic. In addition, it was sought to determine whether the components could be distinguished by their δ13C-value, so the study examined the development of the components’ δ13C-valu during drought. The measurements were done in two different experiment sites. The first one was an artificial drought experiment with pine saplings (Pinus sylvestris) in a greenhouse, where carbon dioxide flux and its δ13C-flux was measured from pine roots and their soil by incubation method. Second one was in a Pirkanmaa pine forest where carbon dioxide flux and its δ13C-flux were measured with incubation method and chamber measuring method. After the sampling, the development of the phenomenon was examined together with moisture- and temperature conditions at the time of the measure-ment. In this study, soil respiration’s autotrophic component changed more slowly in relation to drought than the heterotrophic compo-nent. In addition, in the pine forest, the δ13C-value of autotrophic respiration was below the heterotrophic δ13C-value, as the theory suggests. However, there was no clear development in relation to drought with the components’ δ13C-value. In the green-house experiment, no clearly distinguishable development was observed between the development of the components, and the δ13C-value of soil respiration was rather similar between the components. In both experiment sites, there appeared to be sources of error as environmental conditions improved unexpectedly in both the greenhouse and in the forest. Furthermore, it can be stated that the less destructive chamber measuring protocol seems to produce more reliable data.

Most of the organic dairy producers use conventional, non-organic animals to renew their breeding stock due to lack of breeding program for organic production. Milk production and food intake is usually lower amongst organic cows. Conventional production favour cows with great milk performance, which is a trait that is not as beneficial in organic production. Organic feed is often less energetic than the conventional, which easily leads to fertility and metabolic problems in organic cows with large genetic milk performance. The adaptation to different environments depends on the interaction between genotype and environment. Because of this, animals that thrive in one environment do not succeed as well in other environments. This research is based on organic dairy breeders’ opinions, experiences and future objectives. In this study I also draw conclusions on whether the Finnish organic dairy production would be in need of its own breeding program. The results of this paper are based on two questionnaires, which were sent to organic dairy producers in the end of year 2011. The first questionnaire was sent to 124 organic dairy producers and the other questionnaire to all who answered the first one. The first part consisted of basic questions about the producers’ opinions, goals and future plans, as well as a ranking of the most desirable traits in the breeding stock. In the second part the producers were asked, among other things, to rank the seven most desirable traits in a pairwise comparison using a scale of 1 – 9. The returned questionnaires were analysed by using the Analytic Hierarchy Process method (AHP) (Saaty and Vargas 2001). The consistencies of the answers were checked by calculating the matrixes consistency ratios using Microsoft Excel. The results of the AHP analysis showed that the organic producers favoured the following qualities, starting with the most favourable trait: udder health, milk production, temperament, fertility, milking abilities, leg health and body structure. Milk production was considered to be the most important trait amongst production qualities. Protein production came in second place and fat production in third and last place. The producers thought udder conformation to be more important than feet and legs and feet and legs to be more important than body size. The conclusion of the analysis is that organic dairy producers favour production traits differently than what is currently weighted in conventional production. According to organic preferences the organic producers should use local breeds. In practice, however, only 6,5% of the Finnish organic producers reported their herds to consist fully of Finn cattle, while 19,5% had a herd consisting of Finn cattle plus one other breed or several other breeds. This research shows that the majority of the Finnish organic dairy producers have similar breeding goals with the conventional production. Since the largest difference between organic and conventional dairy production is to be found in the environmental conditions, it would be beneficial to breed some of the conventional AI-bulls so that they would adapt better to organic conditions.

Lake ice is vital for functioning of the lake ecosystems and provides multiple key ecosystem services to the Arctic societies. Climate change changes lake ice conditions which affects these ecosystems and ecosystem services provided by the lake ice. To assess changes of the lake ice in the Northern hemisphere, a climate service providing information on the lake ice extent (LIE) has been set up. The LIE service generates also other types of benefits to for example sector of hydroelectricity and recreation. Potential of climate services has not been fully realised by stakeholders and decision-makers. Economic evaluation may support communicating their value especially in times when objectives of public economy are preferred. Moreover, impacts of small climate services can be difficult to perceive, and certain types of benefits can be challenging to observe. These benefits include avoided costs using climate services. In this thesis avoided costs of the LIE service are estimated both quantitatively and qualitatively using avoided-cost assessment. Used data includes interview results, statistical data, and previous literature. Avoided costs the service generates comprise mainly of avoided in-situ lake ice monitoring trips and travel expenses, avoided flood and infrastructure damages, and potentially avoided injuries and mortality through improved safety. Although quantitatively assessed avoided costs are quite low, level of avoided costs using the LIE service are considerable when quantitatively and qualitatively assessed avoided costs are combined. Moreover, the benefit-cost ratio (BCR) of the avoided costs is reasonable. Findings underline the importance of understanding benefits of climate services that are difficult to quantify. Understanding these benefits also supports justifying financing of climate services. Nonetheless, results are highly uncertain and prospective assessments are required.

Tämän työn tarkoituksena oli selvittää, onko mahdollista avoimia paikkatieto- ja kaukokartoitusaineistoja hyödyntäen luoda kasvupaikkatyyppiä ennustava malli, jonka ennuste olisi tarkempi kuin saatavilla oleva, koko Suomen kattava Luonnonvarakeskuksen tekemä kasvupaikkamalli. Viime vuosikymmenen aikana avointen paikkatietoaineistojen saata-vuus on lisääntynyt moninkertaisesti. Taustalla on EU:n säätämä INSPIRE-direktiivi 2007/2/EC (EU 2007), jonka tavoit-teena on yhteiskäyttöiset paikkatiedot ja yhteinen paikkatietoinfra-struktuuri. Tässä työssä hyödynnetään useita paikka-tieto- ja kaukokartoitusaineistoja, jotka ovat tulleet avoimeen käyttöön maksutta INSPIRE-direktiivin ansiosta. Aineistojen pohjalta on tunnistettu viisitoista mahdollista muuttujaa, jotka voisivat selittää kasvupaikkatyyppiä. Kaksitois-ta muuttujaa kuvaa topografiaa ja pohjautuvat suoraan tai välillisesti korkeusmalliin, yksi muuttuja kuvaa kasvukauden kokonaissadantaa, yksi muuttuja kuvaa maaperää ja yksi muuttuja on valtapituuden kasvuun pohjautuva kasvupaikka-tyyppiennuste. Valtapituuden kasvuun pohjautuvalle kasvupaikkatyyppiennusteelle kehitettiin malli, joka perustuu mänty-, kuusi- ja koivumetsiköiden kasvatusmalleihin. Näiden muuttujien pohjalta sovitettiin regressioanalyysiä hyödyntäen kasvupaikkatyyppiä ennustavia malleja. Referenssiaineistona käytettiin Suomen metsäkeskuksen kaukokartoituskoealo-ja pohjoisen napapiirin eteläpuolelta. Koealoihin on merkitty kasvupaikkatyyppi, johon malli sovitettiin. Tässä työssä kehitetty paras malli ennustaa mittareiden mukaan kasvupaikkatyyppiä tarkemmin kuin Luonnonvarakes-kuksen kasvupaikkamalli. Paras malli käyttää selittäjinä valtapituuden muutokseen perustuvaa kasvupaikkatyyppiennus-tetta, maalajia, korkeutta merenpinnasta, topografista sijainti-indeksiä (TPI), ”cartographic depth-to-water” -indeksiä (DTW) sekä kasvukauden kokonaissadantaa. Toiseksi paras malli ei hyödynnä maalajia selittäjänä, sillä Geologian tutkimuskeskuksen tuottama maaperäkartta ei kata koko Suomea. Malli käyttää selittäjinä valtapituuden muutokseen pe-rustuvaa kasvupaikkatyyppiennustetta, maalajia, korkeutta merenpinnasta, topografista sijainti-indeksiä (TPI), ”carto-graphic depth-to-water” -indeksiä (DTW), topografista kosteusindeksiä (TWI), kasvukauden kokonaissadantaa sekä auringon potentiaalista kokonaissäteilytystä. Selitysvoimaltaan paras muuttuja perustuu valtapituuden kehityksen tarkasteluun useamman ajankohdan laserkeilausai-neistoja hyödyntäen. Muuttujasta saatavat kasvupaikkatyyppiennusteet ovat sitä tarkemmat, mitä enemmän havaintoja aikasarjassa on. Tämän takia tässä työssä kehitettävän mallin parantamisen ja jatkokehittämisen kannalta olennaista on useamman ajankohdan laserkeilausaineistojen saatavuuden lisääminen. Malli hyödyntää 1970-luvulla kehitettyjä kasva-tusmalleja. On viitteitä siitä, että Suomessa puusto kasvaa nykyään nopeammin kuin 30–40 vuotta sitten. Tulevissa tutki-muksissa tätä kasvun muutosta olisi syytä tutkia tarkemmin ja huomioida se kasvupaikkatyyppiä ennustavien mallien jatkokehittämisessä.

Conservation of the genetic diversity enables population adaption to climate and production system changes and prevents harmful consequences of inbreeding. The aim of this study was to investigate the state of genetic diversity in Finnish Ayrshire and Finncattle breeds (Western, Eastern and Northern Finncattle) based on pedigree information. The data were received from FABA co-op. Average inbreeding coefficient and relationships were estimated for animals born between 1970 and 2017. Effective population sizes were estimated separately for each birth-year group. In addition, genetic contribution of the most important ancestors of the population were investigated. The Software packages RelaX2 and R-program were used to estimate the population parameters. Average inbreeding coefficient had either stayed at the same level or decreased for all breeds except Western Finncattle. Average inbreeding coefficient of Western Finncattle has increased 2.2 %-units during the last 20 years. In addition, average relationships between breeding animals has remained stable in other breeds except Western Finncattle. Estimated effective population sizes were 163 (AY), 78 (PSK) 74 (LSK) and 57 (ISK) for animals born between 2015 and 2017. The most important ancestors to animals born between 2015 and 2017 of each breed were A Lier (AY), Opari (LSK), Asa (ISK) and Fager (PSK). Effective population sizes of different Finncattle breeds were larger than the minimum recommendation of 50 and average relationship coefficients between breeding animals have stabilized during the past few years. Despite this, the diversity of all Finncattle breeds needs to be strictly monitored. The genetic diversity of Finnish Ayrshire is at the sustainable level that is partly due to cooperation of the Nordic breeding organizations. In the future, genomic information will hopefully provide more effective tools to estimate and manage population genetic diversity.

The usual dietary sources of vitamin B12 are animal-based foods such as meat, milk, fish and shellfish. Vitamin B12 is an essential water-soluble vitamin for humans, which have many necessary tasks in human body. People who lack animal foods like vegetarians and vegans might be at risk of vitamin B12 deficiency. Microorganisms are the only original sources of vitamin B12 in nature. Especially Propionibacterium freudenreichii synthesizes active form of vitamin B12 for humans. P. freudenreichii is GRAS -graded bacteria and it is safe to use in food matrices. Recently, it has been used for natural fortification of vitamin B12 in plant-based products by fermentation. However, the bioaccessibility of vitamin B12 of those products in human body is not very well known. In the beginning of the study, stability of different B12 vitamers were studied in different light and pH conditions. Vitamin B12 forms are very light-sensitive, especially its physiological forms methyl- and adenosylcobalamin. The aim of this research was to study bioaccessibility of vitamin B12 from P. freudenreichii cells and selected food products using a static in vitro assay. After the in vitro model, vitamin B12 content was analysed with UHPLC system. In addition of bacterial cell samples, bioaccessibility was studied also in some food samples, like bread, pasta and spray-dried powder, fortified with P. freudenreichii cells. In vitamin B12 stability studies, red light seemed to improve the stability of B12 forms. In yellow light methyl- and adenosylcobalamin degraded after 15 minutes. In red light they were detectable after hours of exposure. Methylcobalamin seems to be the most sensitive form of vitamin B12 vitamers. The study revealed that the bioaccessibility of B12 was very small (1,5 %) in P. freudenreichii cells but over 50% in whole bacterial broth. Heat treatment for the samples improved the bioaccessibility to some extent. In B12 fortified food samples, the bioaccessibility of B12 was very good (>70 %). The number of heat treatments and food structure could be one reason why bioaccessibilities in food samples are better than in cell samples. According to this research, in situ fortified food products could be a promising source of vitamin B12 in future.

Bakteereita ja eukaryootteja esiintyy erittäin runsaasti jätevedessä, jossa ne voivat muodostaa fyysisiä vuorovaikutuksia toistensa kanssa. Fyysisiä vuorovaikutuksia bakteerien ja eukaryoottien välille voi muodostua symbioosien tai saalis-saalistaja suhteen välityksellä. Bakteerit ja eukaryootit osallistuvat myös jäteveden puhdistusprosesseihin, joten näillä molemmilla on iso merkitys puhdistusprosessissa. EpicPCR-menetelmän avulla voidaan tutkia isoja mikrobipopulaatioita sekvensoimalla genomin alueita suuresta määrästä yksittäisiä soluja. Aiemmin menetelmää on käytetty selvittämään sulfaatin pelkistämiseen osallistuvien bakteerien fylogeneettista diversiteettiä järven sedimenteissä. Tämän työn tarkoituksena oli tutkia bakteerien ja eukaryoottien fyysisiä vuorovaikutuksia jätevedessä käyttäen apuna epicPCR-menetelmää. Tutkimuksessa yhdistettiin tiiviissä fyysisessä yhteydessä olleen bakteerin 16S rRNA- ja eukaryootin 18S rRNA -geeni. Samalla selvitettiin miten epicPCR-menetelmä soveltuu käytettäväksi kahden fylogeneettisen 16S rRNA- ja 18S rRNA -geenin yhdistämiseen ja miten jätevesi soveltuu näytteeksi. Tulosten perusteella pohdittiin millaisia voisivat olla bakteerien ja eukaryoottien fyysiset vuorovaikutukset ja mitä ne merkitsevät kummallekin osapuolelle. Fyysisiä yhteisvaikutuksia tutkittiin käyttämällä yksinkertaiseen teknologiaan perustuvaa epicPCR-menetelmää ja sekvensointi suoritettiin Illumina MiSeq -menetelmällä. Sekvenssien käsittely ja analyysi tehtiin käyttäen Unixin Bash -komentorivikieltä ja R-ohjelmointikieltä CSC:n Taito-laskentaklusterilla käyttäen apuna Qiime-työkalupakettia. Tulosten perusteella bakteerien ja eukaryoottien välillä havaittiin fyysisiä yhteyksiä, jotka jakaantuivat kahdella eri tavalla. Jätevedestä löytyi eukaryoottiryhmiä, jotka muodostivat yhteyden useamman bakteeriryhmän kanssa ja eukaryoottiryhmiä, jotka muodostivat yhteyden vain tietyn bakteeriryhmän kanssa. Saalistukseen pystyvät eukaryoottiryhmät muodostivat yhteyksiä useamman bakteeriryhmän kanssa kuten myös määrällisesti enemmän kuin fotosynteettiset eukaryoottiryhmät.

Milk foam is an essential part of coffee drinks such as cappuccinos. The foaming properties of milk can change during its shelf life. Milk used in coffee usually contains at least 2 % fat which can deteriorate its foaming properties. UHT milk can lose its sensory and foaming properties during its shelf life. In this thesis the change of properties of UHT-treated coffee milk called Barista milk were investigated. Barista milk is a commercial lactose free, homogenized milk meant to use with coffee. It has 2,0 % of fats and 3,5 % of proteins. The preservation of UHT barista milk was studied when milk was 4, 5, 6 and 7,5 months old. The foaming properties of barista milk were evaluated with automated foaming system. The volume of foam and its stability were measured as volume in a measuring glass. The structure of foams was also photographed and analyzed from photos. Nowadays plant-based drinks are important options for milk. Selected oat drinks for coffees were studied with same foaming methods as milk samples. The oat drink samples were kept in room temperature, fridge (+6 °C) and + 30 °C storage conditions. The tests were made when samples were 4, 8 and 10 months old. Barista milk as evaluated also with sensory evaluations. The sensory properties of barista milk were measured by tasting the milks referred to a fresh reference milk. Sweetness, bitterness, intensity of cooked flavor and fullness were evaluated from milks and cappuccino drinks made from the studied milks. In addition, a professional barista foamed the milks to makes cappuccinos and the drinks were evaluated. The preservation of milk did not affect its foaming properties or foam stability significantly. The foaming temperature affected the volume of foam more than the age of the milk. There was a slight change in the bubble structure of milk. The bubble structure was more uneven with older milk than fresh milk. Oat drinks foamed more, and the foams were more stable in all samples compared to milks of same age. The effect of foaming temperature was less meaningful with oat drinks than with milks. The sensory properties of milk did not change significantly during the study. The biggest change was the decline of cooked flavor in samples tasted as milk. The same decline was not detected when the milks were tasted as cappuccino drinks. An increase of bitterness was detected in the cappuccinos made by a barista when the milk was 6 months old. According to these results the shelf life of barista milk can be lengthened from 4 months to 5 months.

The depletion of natural resources, and the continuous increase in waste volumes, and consumption have increased environmental concerns strongly in recent years. To solve these environmental challenges, the interest in circular economy and resource efficiency in companies' business operations has increased, and the EU has also set targets to accelerate the circular economy. One of the first steps in promoting a circular economy is to understand the drivers and barriers associated with circular economy business models. This thesis aims to investigate the barriers and drivers of implementing five key circular economy business models. The business models studied are 1) resource recovery, 2) sharing platforms, 3) product as a service, 4) product life extension, and 5) Circular supply, which refers to circulating raw materials and resources. The thesis was carried out by interviewing five different Finnish companies from different industries whose business operations corresponded to the studied business models. The case companies have already implemented circular economy business models and can be assumed to have a good understanding of the drivers and barriers. With the help of case studies, the study aims to identify the key barriers and drivers that touch each business model and to identify differences between business models in terms of barriers and drivers. The study provides up-to-date perspectives on circular economy business, business models, and impacts on the development of sustainable business. Based on the results, circular economy related barriers that affect almost every business model can be seen as regulatory uncertainty, high investment costs, and product development more specifically, the development of new materials and products. Drivers shared by business models were related to increasing market demand for sustainability, regulation, innovation, stakeholder pressure, and organizational culture towards sustainability. The identified barriers and drivers also varied depending on whether the company was either manufacturer-oriented or technology-driven. Manufacture-oriented companies faced barriers related to market competition, material development, and the supply chain, while technology driven companies faced barriers related to user acquisition and financing. The drivers, on the other hand, were related to low carbon footprint in manufacturing-oriented companies and technological development in technology-driven companies. The results show that regulation will play a key role in the future tackling the current circular economy related barriers in business models. The regulation must be as predictable as possible, securing long-term investments and product development. It's highly important that legislation encourages sustainable practices by offering financial incentives to companies and promoting cooperation and innovation.