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This thesis analyses the economic effects of food loss and food waste reduction in South Ostrobothnia. The aim is to examine the economic effects when the food industry and food services are forced to reduce their existing food loss and food waste. The theoretical framework of the thesis is based on the General Equilibrium theory. The analysis is performed by using the Computable General Equilibrium (CGE) model. The analysis includes three simulations; the first targeted solely on the food industry and the second solely on food services. The third simulation includes both the food industry and food services. In all simulations, the targeted activities are forced to halve their existing food loss or food waste by reducing the use of agricultural commodities and food products as intermediate inputs. In the first simulation, the results regarding food industry food loss reduction reveal the importance of the food industry to the economy of South Ostrobothnia. The results suggest that food industry food loss reduction would be very beneficial, especially for the industry itself. The food industry would now become more competitive and be able to produce more with fewer cost. This would also decrease the prices of food products. Agriculture would also benefit from food industry food loss reduction, as the demand for agricultural commodities would increase. As the CGE model deals with all markets simultaneously, food industry food loss reduction would have an effect on other activities in the region. For the metal industry, for example, the effect would be negative. The overall GDP effect would, nevertheless, be positive. The simulation targeted on food service would yield more modest effects on specific activities, but the economic effect in terms of GDP would be positive and more significant than in the first simulation. For agriculture and the food industry the effect would be negative. This is because food services represent the end users, and their decrease of food waste reduction would result in a lower demand for agricultural commodities and food products. The results of the combined requirement for the food industry and food services to reduce their existing food loss and waste simultaneously introduces a balance between the results of the first two simulations. The results indicate that reduction efforts targeted on both the food industry and food services would yield the largest gains. In the third simulation, the economic effect would be positive in terms of employment, household income and GDP, for example. From a policy point of view, the results suggest that it would be important to target policy measures at all agents of the food chain. In this regard, suitable policy measures should include policy targets to avoid food losses and food waste as such and also targets to find ways to utilize the already existing food waste and losses. For possible future research, further attention would be required to examine the economic effects of food loss and food waste reduction, in particular, at regional level.

Propionibacterium freudenreichii is commonly known as a Swiss-type cheese ripening culture, and is also frequently applied in the industrial production of vitamin B12 (cobalamin). One way to increase vitamin B12 productivity is the supplementation of medium with 5,6-dimethylbenzimidazole (DMBI), the lower ligand of cobalamin. The aim of this thesis was to investigate the effect of exogenous DMBI on vitamin B12 synthesis and protein production in type strain of P. freudenreichii ssp. freudenreichii. Results showed that DMBI supplementation improved cobalamin production 2.7- and 2.0-fold in cultures grown in anaerobic and two-step processes, respectively. Two-step incubation enabled the achievement of significantly higher levels of cobalamin both in the absence and presence of DMBI. The highest cobalamin level of 0.6 ?g/ml was achieved by the combination of DMBI supplementation with the two-step process. Proteome maps displayed 474 protein spots which is less than 20% of P. freudenreichii predicted proteome. No significant differences in protein production were found between cultures grown in the absence and presence of DMBI. Only two protein spots were more abundant in presence of DMBI and four spots showed higher abundance in absence of DMBI. None of detected proteins from these spots were found to be directly involved in cobalamin biosynthesis.

Health benefits associated with the ingestion of certain lactobacilli known as probiotics have increased the research and incorporation of these bacteria into food products. Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG is a well-known and studied probiotic organism. Upon ingestion, probiotics survive acid and bile stress and then adhere to the epithelial cell walls to elicit health benefits. Adhesion promotes interaction between probiotic cells and epithelial cells which is necessary for probiotics to confer health benefits. Adhesion is also the first step in biofilm formation which aids adaptability and cell-cell interaction. The aim of this work was to investigate the effect of different carbohydrates on the biofilm formation and antigenicity of Lb. rhamnosus GG. Biofilm formation was performed using 96-well microtiter plating method under elevated carbon dioxide (5% CO2) conditions for 24, 48 and 72 hours in the presence of fourteen different carbohydrates. Certain carbohydrates were found to promote the biofilm formation. The expressed antigenic proteins at the cell surface of biofilms from these carbohydrates were also isolated and investigated using 1DE immunoblot analysis. Four carbohydrates were shown to markedly increase the biofilm of Lb. rhamnosus GG under the indicated conditions. For three of the tested carbohydrates the most efficient biofilm formation was obtained after 48 hours of cultivation, whereas for one of the carbohydrates longer time was required to achieve the same biofilm formation efficiency. One dimensional gel electrophoresis coupled with immunoblotting using antibodies raised against whole Lb. rhamnosus GG cells indicated that the increased biofilm formation is closely associated with the increased surface antigenicity. The obtained findings suggest that certain carbohydrates have a central role in stimulating biofilm mode of growth as well as improving the probiotic features of Lb. rhamnosus GG strain.

Strawberry is one of the most rapidly deteriorating fresh produce and thus prone to significant losses during the whole supply chain. Temperature management is a key factor to retain the quality and to prolong the shelf-life. Cooling facilities may not be available in all farms, exposing strawberries to delayed cooling and subsequent early spoilage. Thus, the main aim was to find out how different temperature profiles and cooling methods affect the quality and shelf-life of four Finnish strawberry cultivars and what kind of differences there are between the cultivars against delayed cooling. Samples of four strawberry cultivars (Honeoye, Rumba, Lumotar and Polka) were acquired from local farms and stored in three different temperature profiles and monitored and tested daily for 10 days for marketability, calyx freshness, firmness, total soluble solids (Brix), weight loss and smell. The results indicated that rapidly started cooling was beneficial for all studied cultivars and delayed the spoilage especially effectively for Polka and Honeoye. The effect was only minor for Rumba and moderate for Lumotar. The Brix values varied greatly by cultivar as Polka and Lumotar had higher values compared to Honeoye and Rumba, but the temperature profiles did not influence them. Tunnel cooling helped to prevent early spoilage only slightly compared to room cooling. Among these cultivars, Rumba appears to be best suited for supply chains where temperature management can’t begin immediately after picking, whereas Polka can only be recommended if rapidly started cooling is possible at the farm.

The European Union has stated the reduction of carbon dioxide emissions as one of the major goals in its energy policy. The Emission trading system that started in year 2005 was established to create an efficient market for emission permits and to direct the emission reductions to areas where they are most cost-efficient. Finland has committed to follow the guidelines of the emission trading system and to make notable reductions to the total level of CO2 emissions. The goal of this study is to examine how the emission trading system has affected the fuel choices in the energy sector. The purpose is to find out whether there has been substitution between the different fuel types. The substitution effects were estimated by three different methods. Also this study tries to explain what type of price elasticities the different fuels have. Additionally the effect of emission permit on the allocation of different fuels is studied. The data used in this study were gathered from 67 plants over four years. The studied fuels were aggregated into three categories: wood, peat and other fuels the fourth studied variable was the price of emission permit. The data were edited in to a panel form and were analysed in statistical program EViews. Translog function form was used to solve the elasticities for different fuel types. The results indicate that during the observation period peat acted as a base load fuel with wood and other fuels acting as peaking fuels. Peat counted for half of the total fuel consumption with wood and the other fuels both having a share of about 25%. Wood and other fuels were more price sensitive and had a higher price elasticity than peat. The increase in the price of emission permits decreased the use of peat but had only minor effect on wood and other fuels. During the first period of emission trading system the fluctuation of the permit’s price was intense and the increase in the price did not have a major effect on the fuel choices in the Finnish energy sector. The second period started in 2008 and only one year of that period was included in this study, so it is still to yearly to make any further interpretations of how the second period has effected on the fuel choices. For future studies, in the field of interfuel substitution and price elasticity, a longer time period and a data set with more plants and more fuel types could offer more accurate results and would give more insight to how the plants react to the changing conditions.

Fungi are the major causal agents of several plant diseases. Fungicides are regularly used in forest tree nurseries to protect and eradicate fungal pathogens. However, the use of fungicides can create problems such as the alteration of natural fungal communities in the upper and lower part of the seedling, and fungicide resistance. These factors may lead to new disease problems in the nursery. Excessive use of fungicides is harmful to environment and might prevent the emergence of novel beneficial fungal species. Some foliar endo- and epimycota are known to suppress fungal diseases and protect the host from herbivoria and abiotic stress. The aim of this study was to investigate if routinely used fungicide (Tilt 250 EC propiconazole as an active ingredient) against Scleroderris canker (Gremmeniella abietina) has side-effects on the non-target foliar mycobiota as well as on the height growth of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) seedlings in a Finnish forest nursery. The experiment was conducted in a Finnish forest tree nursery during one growing period. Altogether 100 needles were sampled which resulted in a total of 186 fungal endophytic isolates, and 40 needles sampled resulted in a total of 86 epiphytic isolates. Endophytic isolates were further analysed and assigned to 37 operational taxonomic units (OTUs). Phoma spp. were the most frequently isolated OTUs in both treatments. There were no statistically significant differences between mycota isolated from fungicide treated and control seedlings (except between epiphytes in September), however there were quantitative and qualitative differences which was mainly seen in the higher number of exclusive fungi in control seedlings. There were no statistically significant differences between the growth of fungicide treated and control seedlings but fungicide treated seedlings grew faster at the end of the growing season. These results suggests that fungicide treatment has side-effects on the non-target foliar mycobiota and the growth of Scots pine seedlings.

Norway spruce (Picea abies) is one of the most economically important tree species in northern and central Europe. Root rot caused by Heterobasidion annosum s.l. and European spruce bark beetle (Ips typographus) are major disturbance agents of Norway spruce, and likely to have even greater impact on spruce-dominated forests as climate warms. This thesis investigated the direct interaction between Heterobasidion root rot and I. typographus. The aim was to examine if presence of root rot and the stress it poses to a tree increases the risk for subsequent bark beetle attack. 442 Norway spruce trees from nine different stands were measured and included in this study. Before the final felling, symptoms caused by I. typographus were evaluated from each tree based on visual assessments of crown and stem conditions. After the final felling, the sample plots were relocated from the clearcut areas, and the stumps of the sampled trees were re-assessed for Heterobasidion root rot. Exploratory analysis and binomial Generalized Linear Mixed Model (GLMM) were used to analyze relationships between different explanatory variables and their affect to I. typographus infestation. The best predictors for I. typographus infestation were incidence of root rot and to a lesser extent, decreased 5-year diameter growth and larger diameter at breast height. 75% of root rot infected trees were also infested with I. typographus, and the amount of root rot was considerably higher within dead and severely infested trees compared to alive and moderately infested trees. Results suggest that root rot is one of the significant factors making trees susceptible to I. typographus infestation, especially when the population density of bark beetles is low and stable. Thus, protecting trees from root rot infection may help to protect trees from I. typographus infestation as well.

The legalization and evolving laws around the world regarding to cultivation of Cannabis sativa L. have led to a growing demand for optimized methods of mass propagation of cannabis plants. A micropropagation is a vital tool in this context, as it offers advantages such as rapid multiplication of elite clones, reduced space requirements, and produces clean plant material minimizing risks with diseases and pests. With micropropagation, the cannabis industry can ensure consistent quality and higher yields. Micropropagation methods for cannabis have been developed in numerous research, but the effect of light on the success of micropropagation has been studied fairly little. Using specially tailored LED lighting in cannabis production has proven to increase yield, cannabinoid content and affect the plant morphology. Thus, there is reason to believe that the effect of light intensity and spectra could have the same effect also in vitro. This research aimed to compare the effects of three different spectra and intensity levels on the multiplication rate and rooting of Cannabis sativa L. in vitro. Using hemp type cultivar Carmagnola, three different spectra: sunlike NS12, red and blue dominant AP67, and their combination AP67NS12 (C65, Valoya Oy, Helsinki, Finland) and three different intensity levels 30, 70, and 170 μmol m-2 s-1. Results of this study show that intensity has a significant effect on the formation of shoots, shoot height, number of leaves, and number of rooted plants. The lower intensity of 30 μmol m-2 s-1 results to more desirable morphological characteristics in all cases than the high intensity of 170 μmol m-2 s-1. Spectrum had significant effects on the number of shoots, number of leaves, and number of rooted plants. Treatment with spectrum NS12 resulted into the highest number of shoots, leaves, and tallest shoots. Treatment with spectrum AP67 can increase the number of rooting plants. This study gives encouraging results that optimizing light quality and quantity can have a positive effect on the desired morphological traits in the micropropagation of cannabis.

To study the feasibility of replacing dairy proteins with plant proteins to stabilise emulsions, 9 emulsions were prepared at pH= 3 with sunflower oil and 1% protein solutions containing WPI, SC, PPI individual proteins and their blends (3:1, 1:1, 1:3). Changes in droplet size and zeta-potential were measured to investigate the emulsion stability. The interfacial composition, surface loads, and the protein adsorption behaviour were studied to analyse the interface. Furthermore, the dilatational rheology of the interface was studied as the interfacial properties play a critical role in emulsion stability. All proteins showed good emulsifying and stabilising abilities at pH=3, as they contributed to form emulsions with relatively small droplets (0.355-0.411µm), and prevented destabilisation for 2 weeks. Such results were related to the strong electrostatic repulsion between the droplets and the viscoelastic film formed by proteins. No synergistic or antagonistic effect was observed by using dairy and pea protein blends, indicating pea proteins could be used to partially replace the dairy proteins. A preferential adsorption of dairy proteins over pea proteins was found, with SC being the most dominating type at the interface due to the higher diffusion rate and structural flexibility. However, globular WPI and PPI formed stronger interfacial films than SC and its blend owing to the extensive intermolecular interactions.

Due to climate change, the period with snow cover is shortening and the amount of snowfall is decreasing in the boreal region. In Finland, even the probability of snowless winters is increasing in southern and coastal areas of the country. Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) is a keystone species of boreal forests and adapted to overwinter under insulative and protective snow cover. The effects of changing snow cover on bilberry are studied more in Artic and alpine ecosystems but are not well known in forest environments. In this master’s thesis, the effect of snow cover on growth and performance of bilberry was studied in field conditions using snowless treatment area and control area with natural snow cover in a forest environment in Southern Finland. The experiment was carried out during two consecutive winters between the years 2020 and 2022. In the snowless treatment area, the snow shelters prevented snow reaching the ground and shrubs overwintered without protective snow cover, which exposed them to lower air and soil temperatures. Shrubs at the control area overwintered under natural snow cover. Bilberry samples were collected, and field measurements were done in late August 2022. At the field, the number of dead ramets per square meter and the proportion of dead shoots per ramet were counted. In the laboratory, the elongation growth, leaf area and mass, and specific leaf area (SLA) were measured for growing season 2022, and the stem diameter growth was measured for growing seasons 2021 and 2022. After two consecutive snowless winters, the shoot and ramet mortality increased in snowless treatment area compared to control with natural snow cover. The length of an average shoot increased and the number of living shoots per ramet decreased in the treatment area compared to control. The treated ramets also had greater leaf area, leaf mass, and SLA. This indicates changes in bilberry’s resource allocation, and ability to compensatory growth after winter damages. However, increased mortality could lead to decrease in bilberry coverage in forest understory in a long-term. Changes in bilberry growth and performance can have unpredictable and complex effects on forest ecosystems, and there is a need for future research to show how longer snow-free periods and increased cold stress affect this keystone species in boreal forests.