Browsing by department "Maantieteen laitos"
Now showing items 21-39 of 39
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(Helsingin yliopistoHelsingfors universitetUniversity of Helsinki, 2007)The loss and degradation of forest cover is currently a globally recognised problem. The fragmentation of forests is further affecting the biodiversity and well-being of the ecosystems also in Kenya. This study focuses on two indigenous tropical montane forests in the Taita Hills in southeastern Kenya. The study is a part of the TAITA-project within the Department of Geography in the University of Helsinki. The study forests, Ngangao and Chawia, are studied by remote sensing and GIS methods. The main data includes black and white aerial photography from 1955 and true colour digital camera data from 2004. This data is used to produce aerial mosaics from the study areas. The land cover of these study areas is studied by visual interpretation, pixel-based supervised classification and object-oriented supervised classification. The change of the forest cover is studied with GIS methods using the visual interpretations from 1955 and 2004. Furthermore, the present state of the study forests is assessed with leaf area index and canopy closure parameters retrieved from hemispherical photographs as well as with additional, previously collected forest health monitoring data. The canopy parameters are also compared with textural parameters from digital aerial mosaics. This study concludes that the classification of forest areas by using true colour data is not an easy task although the digital aerial mosaics are proved to be very accurate. The best classifications are still achieved with visual interpretation methods as the accuracies of the pixel-based and object-oriented supervised classification methods are not satisfying. According to the change detection of the land cover in the study areas, the area of indigenous woodland in both forests has decreased in 1955-2004. However in Ngangao, the overall woodland area has grown mainly because of plantations of exotic species. In general, the land cover of both study areas is more fragmented in 2004 than in 1955. Although the forest area has decreased, forests seem to have a more optimistic future than before. This is due to the increasing appreciation of the forest areas.
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(Helsingin yliopistoUniversity of HelsinkiHelsingfors universitet, 2005)The purpose of this study is to define how Helsinki has been presented in the pictures of tourist brochures and how their illustration has changed over time. Attention is also paid to the values and meanings that the pictures mediate, as well as their historical and societal connections. The pictures are approached as representations selectively interpreting and illustrating the reality of Helsinki, while constructing mental images of it. An iconological framework structures the study. It proceeds from the description and classification of the physical features towards an analysis of time- and culture-specific meanings. The emergence of meanings and their historical and cultural underpinnings are examined from the perspectives of humanistic geography, semiotics and constructionism. In the analysis attention is paid to the discourses, myths and ideologies that underlie the representations. Information on the physical features of the pictures and their changes is collected with a content analysis. The classified data consists of 1377 photographs. These pictures are collected from 75 tourist brochures of Helsinki that have been published between 1895 and 2005. The deeper meanings of the pictures are studied qualitatively, by paying attention to the mental images that the content elements and visual effects evoke. Research studies, contemporary literature and the texts of the tourist brochures are utilised in the interpretation of the meanings. There has been a permanent core to objects of the pictures during the entire study period. It has consisted mainly of sights that are located close to the Senate and Market Squares. In addition, marine elements have been popular. The area of Helsinki represented in the brochures has extended from the Senate Square towards Töölö Bay. Pictures of monumental buildings and statues have been complemented with snapshots and portraits. In the beginning of the 20th century, brochures were mainly produced for the travelling, educated elite. The style of the pictures was declaratory and educative. They aimed at medating an objective image of the reality that prevailed in Helsinki. In practice, the pictures were connected to a patriotic ideology and the corresponding myth of Finnishness. In the second half of the 20th century the improvement of the standard of living led to a democratisation of consumers and an increase in the tourism demand. Local culture and the everyday life of 'ordinary' people became popular themes in the pictures. A new welfare ideology manifested itself in the people of the local residential areas, for instance. The increase in the cultural diversity has led to the recognition of new target groups, especially since the 1980s. The human figures in the pictures have started to function as objects of identification and a means of constructing mental images. A pronounced emphasis on experience and individuality in the illustration of the tourist brochures mirrors the post-modern change and a new ideology based on consumption. The construction and consumption of the pictures in the tourist brochures is governed by the conventions of representation and interpretaion that are typical of the genre of tourist brochures. The pictures emphasize the perceived positive characteristics of Helsinki and thus construct a skewed view of the reality. However, consumers can knowingly use the pictures as a means of dreaming and detaching themselves from their everyday reality.
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(Helsingin yliopistoUniversity of HelsinkiHelsingfors universitet, 2003)Tämä Pro gradu -tutkielma käsittelee Krakovan kaupungin teknomusiikkiin pohjautuvaa kaupunkikulttuurin osasta - Krakovan teknoheimoa. Antropologisella kenttätyömetodilla kerätyn aineiston pohjalta olen pyrkinyt selittämään kaupunkikulttuurin toimintaa nykyaikaisessa kulttuuriteollisuuden ja postfordistisen kapitalismin määrittämässä kaupungissa. Kaupungissa, joka on vuoden 1989 jälkeen, Puolan sosialistisen järjestelmän romahdettua, ajautunut jälleen mukaan globaalin kapitalismin pyörteisiin. Kapitalismin saapumisen myötä kaupunki ja sen elämä ovat saamassa lisääntyvissä määrin vahvistuvasta urbanisoitumisesta ja postmodernin kiistellystä epookista kertovia tunnusmerkkejä. Näistä tunnusmerkeistä selvin on Michel Maffesolin tunnistama ilmiö kaupunkielämän heimottumisesta. Postmodernien kaupunkikulttuurien leimaamissa kaupungeissa ihmisten yhteisöllisyys on muodostunut eri lähtökohdista kuin perinteisissä naapurustoihin pohjautuvissa kaupungeissa. Heimottuneissa yhteiskunnissa yhteisöllisyys muodostuu kuluttamisen ja ekstaattisen yhdessäolon kautta. Krakovassa on selviä merkkejä siitä, että kaupunkiheimot ovat korvaamassa perinteisen katoliseen kirkkoon pohjautuvan yhteisön. Yksi kaupunkiheimoista on teknomusiikkiin - elektroniseen tanssimusiikkiin-pohjaava kaupunkikulttuuri. Krakovan teknoheimo on globaalin teknokulttuurin ja paikallisen tilan ehdoilla toimiva yhteisö. Sen olemassaolo perustuu toisaalta tiettyjen, dominoivien henkilöiden haluun ansaita elantonsa teknomusiikin kautta ja toisaalta heimon jäsenten tarpeesta kokea yhteisöllisyyttä muiden samanlaisen maun omaavien henkilöiden kanssa. Teknomusiikin ja -heimon tarina on alkanut vasta 1980- luvun puolen välin paikkeilla Lontoosta, mutta kuitenkin alle 20 vuodessa se on levittäytynyt lähes koko maapallon alueelle. Nopea levittäytymistahti kertoo omaa tarinaansa nykyisen kulttuuriteollisuuden voimasta. Sen kyvystä omaksua uusien, mielenkiintoisten kulttuurien tavat, symbolit ja asenteet ja tehdä niistä kulutushyödykkeitä. Tämä on selvästi nähtävissä myös Krakovan teknoheimon elämässä. Kaupungissa on toisaalta nähtävissä teknoheimon taso, jossa harrastuneisuus ja aito innostus musiikkia ja tanssimista kohtaan on määräävässä asemassa, mutta myös kulttuurikoneisto, joka yrittää markkinoida teknoheimon elämäntavan helposti omaksuttavia osia mahdollisimman laajalle yleisölle. Teknoheimon kautta puolalaisen yhteiskunnan muutos kohti urbaanimpaa ja globalisoituneempaa maailmaa on selvästi nähtävissä. Se on ollut yksi niistä monista silloista, joita pitkin kapitalismin leimaamaa kaupunkikulttuuria on rakennettu entiseen sosialismin saarekkeeseen.
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(Helsingin yliopistoUniversity of HelsinkiHelsingfors universitet, 2001)
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(Helsingin yliopistoHelsingfors universitetUniversity of Helsinki, 2005)The aim of this study is to find out how urban segregation is connected to the differentiation in educational outcomes in public schools. The connection between urban structure and educational outcomes is studied on both the primary and secondary school level. The secondary purpose of this study is to find out whether the free school choice policy introduced in the mid-1990's has an effect on the educational outcomes in secondary schools or on the observed relationship between the urban structure and educational outcomes. The study is quantitative in nature, and the most important method used is statistical regression analysis. The educational outcome data ranging the years from 1999 to 2002 has been provided by the Finnish National Board of Education, and the data containing variables describing the social and physical structure of Helsinki has been provided by Statistics Finland and City of Helsinki Urban Facts. The central observation is that there is a clear connection between urban segregation and differences in educational outcomes in public schools. With variables describing urban structure, it is possible to statistically explain up to 70 % of the variation in educational outcomes in the primary schools and 60 % of the variation in educational outcomes in the secondary schools. The most significant variables in relation to low educational outcomes in Helsinki are abundance of public housing, low educational status of the adult population and high numbers of immigrants in the school's catchment area. The regression model has been constructed using these variables. The lower coefficient of determination in the educational outcomes of secondary schools is mostly due to the effects of secondary school choice. Studying the public school market revealed that students selecting a secondary school outside their local catchment area cause an increase in the variation of the educational outcomes between secondary schools. When the number of students selecting a school outside their local catchment area is taken into account in the regressional model, it is possible to explain up to 80 % of the variation in educational outcomes in the secondary schools in Helsinki.
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(Helsingin yliopistoHelsingfors universitetUniversity of Helsinki, 2009)In this Master's thesis I go through the principals of the good governance. I apply these principals to the Nicaraguan context and especially in two rural municipalities in Chontales department. I clarify the development of the space of participation in Nicaraguan municipal level. I start my examination from the period when Somoza dictatorship ended and first open elections were held, and I end it to the municipal eleccions held in November 2008. These elections were robbed in 33 municipalities and because of this there started a crisis in Nicaragua and among the actors of development cooperation. As a methods of research I use two types of interview in the thesis, the interviews for the citizens and interviews for the experts. These interviews answer to my questions of the methods of participation. I also review the level of the trust of a citizen to an authority by asking if s/he voted in the municipal eleccions in November 2008. Furthermore, I define the work of municipal government in the point of view of the citizen. I also find out if a citizen wants to take more part in the decision making in her/his municipal. I have classified the types of citizens by the interviews I made. Due to this classification I explain how many people actually have opportunity to participate the dialogue of the municipal decision making and how many can follow the activity of the municipal governance. The result is that after the elections in November 2008 only one typed group can freely take part in the dialogue. This does not apply the principals of good governance, especially in subterms of participation and transparency. The incidents after the municipal elections have affected strongly on the co-operation of Finland and Nicaragua. Because of the fault of the elections Finland like the other co-operative countries brought down the directly paid budget support. This has caused a great economical crisis in Nicaragua which the covering will take a long time. The Master's thesis is a case study of two rural municipalities called Santo Tómas and Villa Sandino. Santo Tómas has a sandinista municipal government which is not legitimate. In Villa Sandino the government is liberal and legitimate.
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(Helsingin yliopistoUniversity of HelsinkiHelsingfors universitet, 2002)
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(Helsingin yliopistoUniversity of HelsinkiHelsingfors universitet, 1997)Työssä tutkitaan paikkatietojärjestelmiä (GIS) käyttäen Helsingin, Espoon ja Vantaan palo- ja pelastustoimen yhteistoimintasopimusta. Samalla tutkitaan paikkatietojärjestelmien soveltuvuutta palo- ja pelastustoimen yhteistoiminnan suunnitteluun. Palo- ja pelastustoimilain mukaisesti kuntien tulee mitoittaa palo- ja pelastustoimen valmiutensa siten, että se on riittävä. Arviointia varten kunnat on jaettu riskialueisiin I-IV, jossa I on korkeariskisin alue. Sisäasiainministeriön pelastusosaston ohjeen mukaan pelastustoiminnan tulisi käynnistyä I-riskialueella kuuden minuutin, II-riskialueella kymmenen minuutin ja III-riskialueella 20 minuutin kuluttua hälytyksestä. IV-riskialueella aika voi olla pitempi kuin I-IV -riskialueilla. Helsingin, Espoon ja Vantaan palo- ja pelastustoimien välillä solmittiin 2.2.1995 yhteistoimintasopimus, jonka mukaan yhteistoiminta-alueella tapahtuviin hälytystehtäviin lähetetään kuntarajoista riippumatta lähin yksikkö. Tutkielma pohjautuu tähän sopimukseen. MapInfo-paikkatieto-ohjelmaa käyttäen piirretään Helsingin, Espoon ja Vantaan paloyksiköiden saavutettavuusajoista saman ajan käyriä eli isokroneja, sekä vertaillaan niitä riskialueluokitukseen. Oleellista on tunnistaa ne alueet joita ei tavoiteta riskialueluokituksen edellyttämässä suositusajassa, sekä ne alueet jonne naapurikaupungin paloyksikkö ehtii omaa yksikköä nopeammin. Tutkimuksen mukaan Helsingin maapinta-alasta 3 % I-riskiluokkaan kuuluvia alueita ja 3 % II-riskiluokkaan kuuluvia alueita jää tavoittamatta riskialueluokituksen edellyttämässä ajassa. Vastaavat luvut Espoossa ovat 3 % ja 7 %, sekä Vantaalla 17 % ja 1 %. Yhteistoimintasopimuksen puitteissa toisen kaupungin paloyksikötkin tavoittavat suositusajassa vain hyvin pienen osan näistä alueista. Poikkeus on Vantaan antama apu Pohjois-Espooseen. Vantaan yksiköt tavoittavat suositusajassa 13 km2 Espoon II-riskialueista. Luku on 4 % Espoon maapinta-alasta. Tutkimuksessa tehdään ehdotus alueista jotka kannattaisi hoitaa toisin kuin voimassa oleva yhteistoimintasopimus edellyttää. Mukana on myös kartta, jossa kuntarajat on piirretty paloyksiköiden saavutettavuusaikojen mukaan. Kartassa kukin kaupunki muodostuu siitä alueesta, jonne kaupungin paloyksiköt ehtivät ensimmäisenä kolmesta kaupungista. Tutkimuksessa käy ilmi, että käytetyt työmetodit, ohjelmistot ja aineisto soveltuvat sellaisenaan minkä tahansa kunnan palo- ja pelastustoimen suunnitteluun ja yhteistoiminnan arviointiin. Tarvetta jatkotutkimuksiin olisi ainakin yhteistoiminta-alueen laajentamisesta, sekä riskianalyysien ja sairaankuljetusyksiköiden sijoittelun tekemisestä paikkatietojärjestelmiä apuna käyttäen.
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(Helsingin yliopistoHelsingfors universitetUniversity of Helsinki, 2006)By law, rescue services must anticipate and plan future rescue situations so that the emergency measures taken in the event of an accident can be accomplished quickly and effectively. To reach this goal, rescue services planning must be up to date. The development of rescue services is directed by the Rescue Act, and guidelines such as the readiness program, based on that law. The guidelines give the basic principles for organizing rescue services. This paper studies the ability of rescuers to reach different locations now, and in the future, and whether this happens within the time constraints required by the readiness program. The time perspective of the study includes both the current time and the future. Predictions of possible future situations are based on zoning information. The goal of the study is to find out whether there are any gaps in the network of fire stations or if gaps will develop in the near future. The strong growth and increase in the population of the greater Helsinki area, and of surrounding towns, creates many challenges for city planning, including rescue services. This study targets the two towns of Espoo and Kirkkonummi, where fast growth specifically into new housing areas, makes planning of rescue services challenging. Many new options are available for planning due to technological developments. The combined methods of planning and geo-informatics used in this study help to determine the need for new resources in rescue services. By using these methods, the planning of rescue services could be done at least 10 years into the future.
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(Helsingin yliopistoUniversity of HelsinkiHelsingfors universitet, 2008)The aim of this thesis was to study the crops currently used for biofuel production from the following aspects: 1. what should be the average yield/ ha to reach an energy balance at least 0 or positive 2. what are the shares of the primary and secondary energy flows in agriculture, transport, processing and usage, and 3. overall effects of biofuel crop cultivation, transport, processing and usage. This thesis concentrated on oilseed rape biodiesel and wheat bioethanol in the European Union, comparing them with competing biofuels, such as corn and sugarcane-based ethanol, and the second generation biofuels. The study was executed by comparing Life Cycle Assessment-studies from the EU-region and by analyzing them thoroughly from the differences viewpoint. The variables were the following: energy ratio, hectare yield (l/ha), impact on greenhouse gas emissions (particularly CO2), energy consumption in crop growing and processing one hectare of a particular crop to biofuel, distribution of energy in processing and effects of the secondary energy flows, like e.g. wheat straw. Processing was found to be the most energy consuming part in the production of biofuels. So if the raw materials will remain the same, the development will happen in processing. First generation biodiesel requires esterification, which consumes approximately one third of the process energy. Around 75% of the energy consumed in manufacturing the first generation wheat-based ethanol is spent in steam and electricity generation. No breakthroughs are in sight in the agricultural sector to achieve significantly higher energy ratios. It was found out that even in ideal conditions the energy ratio of first generation wheat-based ethanol will remain slightly under 2. For oilseed rape-based biodiesel the energy ratios are better, and energy consumption per hectare is lower compared to wheat-based ethanol. But both of these are lower compared to e.g. sugarcane-based ethanol. Also the hectare yield of wheat-based ethanol is significantly lower. Biofuels are in a key position when considering the future of the world's transport sector. Uncertainties concerning biofuels are, however, several, like the schedule of large scale introduction to consumer markets, technologies used, raw materials and their availability and - maybe the biggest - the real production capacity in relation to the fuel consumption. First generation biofuels have not been the expected answer to environmental problems. Comparisons made show that sugarcane-based ethanol is the most prominent first generation biofuel at the moment, both from energy and environment point of view. Also palmoil-based biodiesel looks promising, although it involves environmental concerns as well. From this point of view the biofuels in this study - wheat-based ethanol and oilseed rape-based biodiesel - are not very competitive options. On the other hand, crops currently used for fuel production in different countries are selected based on several factors, not only based on thier relative general superiority. It is challenging to make long-term forecasts for the biofuel sector, but it can be said that satisfying the world's current and near future traffic fuel consumption with biofuels can only be regarded impossible. This does not mean that biofuels should be rejected and their positive aspects ignored, but maybe this reality helps us to put them in perspective. To achieve true environmental benefits through the usage of biofuels there must first be a significant drop both in traffic volumes and overall fuel consumption. Second generation biofuels are coming, but serious questions about their availability and production capacities remain open. Therefore nothing can be taken for granted in this issue, expect the need for development.
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(Helsingin yliopistoUniversity of HelsinkiHelsingfors universitet, 2005)Saimaa ringed seal (Phoca hispida saimensis) is one of the most endangered species in the world. Global and local issues define conservation and management of living areas of Saimaa ringed seal. Implementation of sustainable development is based on international environmental politics. Municipalities’ land-use decisions are often affected by the pressure to manage in the field of the global economy. Increasing the number of cottages and leisure time homes are seen in rural municipalities as one solution to survive in global economical challenge. Increased housing on inland lakeside areas will also increase man-made disturbance to the Saimaa ringed seal. Toxins in the water are not a problem anymore for Saimaa ringed seal after the turn to post-industrial society. Now the biggest threats for the seal are fishing tackles, which are distributed by people living in the cottages located on lakeside. Also other indirect disturbances caused by lakeside housing create serious problems. The study area, Lake Pihlajavesi, is located in the middle part of the lake complex Saimaa. About 30 % of the population of the Saimaa ringed seals live here. Three municipalities, Savonlinna, Punkaharju and Sulkava, surround Lake Pihlajavesi. During the last 15 years these municipalities have completed five shoreline master plans in the Pihlajavesi area. This research has studied what kind of a role Saimaa ringed seal plays in the field of local planning. To define planner’s chances to take seals into account, the possibilities given by legislation and the interpretations of the most important laws have been analysed. It has also been studied if Saimaa ringed seal has been accounted for in the master and strategic planning. The relations of seal lairing and man-made disturbances have been researched with the methods of GIS (Geographic Information System). According to this study, the seal population in Lake Pihlajavesi is living closer to the man-made disturbances than the other populations elsewhere in Lake Saimaa. Housing situated near the most important lairing sites of Saimaa ringed seals in Lake Pihlajavesi will increase dramatically due to the shoreline master plans. Despite possibilities given by legislation, Saimaa ringed seal is not mentioned in municipal strategies. The communicative turn in planning has been carried out in Finland, for example, by the new Land Use And Building Act. New communicative elements give more chance to take Saimaa ringed seal into account in planning. There are possibilities to develop new ways of participation in open planning processes to gather more information about Saimaa ringed seal in these areas.
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(Helsingin yliopistoHelsingfors universitetUniversity of Helsinki, 2010)Having to do with residential areas, geographical image research in Finland has concentrated mainly on those areas with a relatively negative image, such as eastern parts of Helsinki. However, Kumpula and Toukola are former working class residential areas whose image nowadays is mainly positive. This research aims at understanding the process through which their image has gradually come to be that way. Theoretical background of the research relies on human geography and it s viewpoints on places, spaces and areas. Areas, in this research, are understood to be founded on discursive processes that form meanings in societies. This approach is useful because it provides a way to research newspapers and to see how they affect the society. In addition I lean on Sirpa Tani’s research on place images to study image and it s formation process. Her point of view covers especially well the effect of media on images and their formation. Articles published in Helsingin Sanomat and Ilta-Sanomat between the years 1963 and 1999 form the data of the research. Methodologically I proceeded by using content analysis to see what kind of topics have been dominating the news feed from Kumpula and Toukola. Content analysis was followed by discourse analysis, which allowed me to focus on the ways of speaking about and representing Kumpula and Toukola. Discourse analysis also reveals whose viewpoint is being represented in media when it comes to publishing news from these parts of the city. It is clearly visible from the results of this research that the image of Kumpula and Toukola has gone through a significant change between 1963 and 1999. In the 1960s discussion in newspapers was dominated by the need for more effective city planning. This meant that Kumpula and Toukola were under a demolition threat in order for the city to built more effectively on those areas. At the same time there was discussion about wooden houses that were built in Kumpula and Toukola right after the second World War. Those houses were in a poor condition, it was even said in the newspapers that people were living in slum-like conditions in them. By the 1980s the image of Kumpula and Toukola gradually started to change. At this time gentrification process was affecting the areas and well-educated working force moved to Kumpula and Toukola. Already in the beginning of 1990s the image of the areas was highly positive. Throughout this decade newspapers published news on Kumpula and Toukola that commented favorably on the atmosphere and the feeling of togetherness among the residents. In addition Kumpula village carnivals, that were first held in 1991, brought a lot of positive publicity to the areas. This research has revelead that especially the active participationg of the residents to promote joint causes has positively affected the image of Kumpula and Toukola. Since the 1960s fighting for the preservation of the areas has provided a reason for a stronger feeling of communality and identifying in the community. This feeling of togetherness in a community has carried all the way to the 1990s, when the areas, having been affected by gentrification, could make good use of the positive image in order to promote joint causes.
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(Helsingin yliopistoUniversity of HelsinkiHelsingfors universitet, 2004)Tieliikenteen luontovaikutusten arvioinneissa on perinteisesti keskitytty tarkastelemaan liikennevälineiden ilmanpäästöjä, melua tai myrkyllisten aineiden valumista maaperään tai vesistöihin. Liikenteen luonnonvarojen kulutusta on tutkittu vain vähän. Tässä pro gradu –tutkielmassa pyritään arvioimaan Suomen yleisten teiden ja tieliikenteen luonnonvarojen kulutusta uusiutumattomien ja uusiutuvien luonnonvarojen, veden ja ilman osalta. Tarkoituksena on selvittää, kuinka paljon tieliikenne kuluttaa luonnonvaroja ja miten kyseinen kulutus jakautuu tien päällä kulkevaa ajoneuvoa, ihmistä tai kuljetettua tavaratonnia kohden. Tutkimuksen kohteiksi valittiin neljä eri tieluokan tieosuutta ja kuusi erilaista ajoneuvoa. Tutkimusmenetelmänä käytettiin Saksassa Wuppertal-instituutissa 1990-luvun alkupuolella kehitettyä MIPS-menetelmää. MIPS muodostuu sanoista Material Input Per Service unit eli materiaalipanos jaettuna palvelusuoritteella. Mittari koostuu MI-luvusta (tuotteen tai palvelun koko elinkaarenaikainen materiaalin kulutus) ja S-luvusta (tuotteen tai palvelun antama palvelusuorite). Mitä pienemmäksi MIPS-luku saadaan, sitä ympäristöystävällisempi hyödyke on. MIPS-menetelmän mukaan nopeasti kasvavat materiaalivirrat muuttavat maailman ekologista tasapainoa ja siten ihmisten kulutustottumusten on muututtava. Yleisten teiden ja tieliikenteen MIPS-luvut laskettiin neljässä kategoriassa: abioottiset eli uusiutumattomat luonnonvarat, bioottiset eli uusiutuvat luonnonvarat, vesi ja ilma. Tutkimuksessa laskettiin MIPS-luvut jokaisen tieluokan osalta erikseen. Teiden MI-lukuihin eli elinkaarenaikaisiin kulutuksiin laskettiin kaikki tien infrastruktuurin aiheuttamat kulutukset sekä kaikki tien päällä kulkevat ajoneuvot kulutuksineen 60 vuoden ajalta. Tämä luku suhteutettiin tien tarjoamaan palveluun (S) nähden eli ajoneuvokilometreihin / henkilökilometreihin / tonnikilometreihin riippuen siitä, millaisella ajoneuvolla tien päällä kuljetaan. Lopputuloksena saatiin tieto, kuinka paljon henkilöautolla tai muulla ajoneuvolla ajaminen esimerkiksi moottori- tai seututiellä kuluttaa luonnonvaroja jokaista kuljettua kilometriä kohden. Tien infrastruktuurin osalta suurimmat luonnonvarojen kulutukset aiheutuvat tien rakentamisvaiheesta ja tien käytön aikana liikenne muodostaa merkittävän osan erityisesti veden ja ilman kulutusten osalta. Moottoritiet kuluttavat 60 vuoden aikana yli kymmenen kerta enemmän luonnonvaroja kuin esimerkiksi seututiet. Kun elinkaarenaikainen kulutus suhteutetaan tien tarjoamaan palveluun nähden, tulos muuttuu. Mitä suuremmalla tieluokalla ajetaan, sitä vähemmän kuluu luonnonvaroja ajoneuvon kulkemaa kilometriä kohden, sillä vilkasliikenteisten teiden käyttösuhde on pienempiä tieluokkia tehokkaampaa. Tieliikenteen luonnonvarojen kulutuksen arviointia MIPS-menetelmän avulla ei ole toteutettu tämän tutkimuksen ohella kuin Saksassa. Tutkielma on osa laajempaa FIN-MIPS Liikenne –hanketta, jonka koordinoijana on toiminut Suomen Luonnonsuojeluliitto ja tilaajina Ympäristöministeriö, Liikenne- ja viestintäministeriö, Tiehallinto, Ratahallintokeskus, Merenkulkulaitos ja Ilmailulaitos.
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(Helsingin yliopistoUniversity of HelsinkiHelsingfors universitet, 2008)Pedestrian streets have been a recognized method of revitalizing inner-city trade for decades. At first many shop owners are sceptical to what changes a pedestrianizations brings about, but experience shows pedestrian streets have been successful and raises the sales of businesses located on it. However, certain businesses are not favoured by a pedestrianization while others can gain a lot from it. This master's thesis examines the commercial structure of pedestrian streets in order to find out what businesses are located on pedestrian streets. The results are compared with the commercial structure of the shopping district in which the pedestrian street is located. In this way the differences in the commercial structure is found out. The thesis also looks into how frequent chain stores are on pedestrian streets and in shopping districts. The research material was gathered using a commercial inventory in three Finnish towns: Ekenäs, Kerava and Pori. The material was classified into categories and the results drawn onto a map as well as analyzed by basic statistical methods. The results are separated for pedestrian streets, shopping centres and other locations and put into the overall categories of retailers, restaurants and other services. The results show that there are clear differences in commercial structure when comparing pedestrian streets with the surrounding shopping district. Pedestrian streets have much more retailers, especially fashion shops, than has other locations. Shopping centres show a similar commercial structure to pedestrian streets, while the rest of the shopping district has fewer retailers and more service businesses. Restaurants are more evenly spread out over the shopping district as a whole. The results for chain stores are ambiguous. There are some hints that they are more common on pedestrian streets, especially in bigger towns. The results gained are however not sufficient to make far reaching conclusions. During the last 10–15 years pedestrian streets in Finland has become more dominated by restaurants on the expense of other services, while the number of retailers has remained the same. Finnish pedestrian streets still show a different commercial structure to pedestrian streets in Scandinavia that have more retailers and fewer services than their Finnish counterparts. The case specific results show a lot of local variance. Local factors are in many cases stronger than general theories of shop localization on pedestrian streets. In general the findings support the theoretical framework. The results give more exact information on the commercial structure of pedestrian streets and shopping districts and what impacts on this structure.
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(Helsingin yliopistoUniversity of HelsinkiHelsingfors universitet, 2003)This Master’s Thesis examines the allocation of individuals’ working time between paid and unpaid work, and thus between workplace and home in eight European countries. Time-geographical theory, where an individual’s activities are affected by constraints to activity, forms the theoretical framework. Classification of countries into the Nordic, Continental, British, and Peripheral welfare state regimes represent the authority constraint in time geography. An individuals’ decision to retire is taken as an event in lifetime allocation of working time between home and the workplace. A common concern in European economies over the demographic ageing of the population and the decreasing labour force participation of the ageing has prompted research aimed at a better understanding of retirement behaviour. In this work, data from national time use surveys are used in the documentation of time use in Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Germany, the Netherlands, Portugal, and the United Kingdom. An economic value is assigned to the time spent in household work, and financial incentive calculations for the decision to retire are performed. There are differences in time use with respect to employment status, gender, and country. The non-employed spend more time at home and supply more household work than the employed. Women supply more household work than men do, regardless of employment status, but the allocation is more equal among the non-employed. Respectively, men supply more paid work than women do. Thus the female share of total work is close to 0.5 in most countries. The results from the financial incentive calculations for the decision to retire indicate that accounting for the value of household work yields stronger incentives to retire, and that household work encourages early retirement in all of the countries included in the study. The time use patterns do not seem to follow the welfare regime typology very closely. Thus the time-geographical authority constraints in individual countries seem to work fairly independently of each other despite the ongoing convergence in social and economic factors in the European welfare states. However, measures of dissimilarity between pairs of countries do suggest some grouping with respect to location within the core or the periphery of Europe. Linking descriptive analysis of time use and incentive calculations inclusive of the value of household work to the time-geographical framework illustrates the applicability of time-geographical concepts and methodology in comparative economic geography. This study contributes to an international research project Ageing, Health, and Retirement in Europe, and has been carried out at the Research Institute of the Finnish Economy where the author has been employed as a research assistant during the course of the work.
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(Helsingin yliopistoHelsingfors universitetUniversity of Helsinki, 2007)This thesis explores selective migration in Greater Helsinki region from the perspective of counterurbanisation. The aim of the study is to research whether the migration is selective by migrants age, education, income level or the rate of employment and to study any regional patterns formed by the selectivity. In the Helsinki region recent migratory developments have been shifting the areas of net migration gain away from the city of Helsinki to municipalities farther off on the former countryside. There has been discussion about Helsinki s decaying tax revenue base and whether the city s housing policy has contributed to the exodus of wealthier households. The central question of the discussion is one of selective migration: which municipalities succeed in capturing the most favourable migrants and which will lose in the competition. Selective migration means that region s in-migrants and out-migrants significantly differ from each other demographically, socially and economically. Sometimes selectivity is also understood as some individuals greater propensity to migrate than others but the proper notion for this would be differential migration. In Finnish parlance these two concepts have tended to get mixed up. The data of the study covers the total migration of the 34 municipalities of Uusimaa provinces during the years 2001 to 2003. The data was produced by Statistics Finland. Two new methods of representing the selectivity of migration as a whole were constructed during the study. Both methods look at the proportions of favourably selected migrants in regions inward and outward migrant flow. A large share in the inward flow and a small share in the outward flow is good for region s economy and demography. The first method calculates the differences of the proportions of favourably selected four migrant groups and sums the differences up. The other ranks the same proportions between regions giving value 1 to the largest proportion in inward flow and 34 to the smallest, and respectively in outward flow the smallest proportion gets value 1 and the largest 34. The total sum of the ranks or differences in proportions represents region s selectivity of migration. The results show that migration is indeed selective in the Greater Helsinki region. There also seems to be a spatial pattern centred around the Helsinki metropolitan region. The municipalities surrounding the four central communes are generally better of than those farther away. Not only these eight municipalities of the so called capital region benefit from the selective migration, but the favourable structure of migration extends to some of the small municipalities farther away. Some municipalities situated along the main northbound railway line are not coming through as well as other municipalities of the capital region. The selectivity of migration in Greater Helsinki region shows signs of counter-urbanisation. People look for suburban or small-town lifestyle no longer from Espoo or Vantaa, the neighbouring municipalities to Helsinki, but from the municipalities surrounding these two or even farther off. This kind of pattern in selective migration leads to unbalanced development in population structure and tax revenue base in the region. Migration to outskirts of the urban area also leads to urban sprawl and fragmentation of the urban structure: these issues have ecological implications. Selective migration should be studied more. Also the concept itself needs clearer definition and so do the methods to study the selectivity of migration.
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(Helsingin yliopistoUniversity of HelsinkiHelsingfors universitet, 2005)The study area, Vihtamonjoki catchment area, is 55 square kilometres and a third of it has been ditched. The largest ditchings have been done in years 1959-1970. The water system in the catchment area builds up of several lake basins, brooks and rivers. This study tries to discover the water quality at present. It also tries to determine the sedimentation rate and the changes on the sediment quality during the past decades. The water samples were collected in August 2003 and in March 2004 from several places in the catchment area. On March 2004 the sediment samples were collected from four lake basins. Organic matter, total phosphorus, iron, manganese, Fe/Mn-ratio, zinc and copper were determined from sediment samples. The water quality was determined by electric conductivity, alkalinity, pH, oxygen content and the content of sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, sulphate, chlorine and fluoride. Also the nutrients, nitrate, ammonium and phosphate, were determined. Chemical analyses and loss on ignition analyses showed clear changes in sediment quality in samples taken from 15-25 cm depth, thus showing the time of the ditching. In most cases the forest ditching had caused increase in mineral matter, iron, zinc and copper and decrease in total phosphorus and organic matter. Sedimentation rates vary between 4,1 to 6,7 mm/year in lakes after the forest ditching. Sedimentation rates have probably increased due to the forest ditching. The Fe/Mn-ratio shows that there has been a lack of oxygen in the lakes for some years after the forest ditching. The water quality proved to be normal in the Vihtamonjoki catchment area. Oxygen content in March 2004 pointed to the conclusion that there might be lack of oxygen in winter. Other analysis showed the water quality to be typical for the Kainuu area.
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(Helsingin yliopistoHelsingfors universitetUniversity of Helsinki, 2007)In Cambodia, water has a special purpose as a source of life and livelihoods. Along with agriculture, fishing and forest use, industry, hydropower, navigation and tourism compete for the water resources. When rights and responsibilities related to essential and movable water are unclear, conflicts emerge easily. Therefore, water management is needed in order to plan and control the use of water resources. The international context is characterized by the Mekong River that flows through six countries. All of the countries by the river have very different roles and interests already depending on their geographical location. At the same time, water is also a tool for cooperation and peace. Locally, the water resources and related livelihoods create base for well-being, for economical and human resources in particular. They in turn are essential for the local people to participate and defend their rights to water use. They also help to construct the resource base of the state administration. Cambodia is highly dependent on the Mekong River. However, Cambodia has a volatile history whose effects can be seen for example in population structure, once suspended public institutions and weakened trust in the society. Relatively stable conditions came to the country as late as in the 1990s, therefore Cambodia for example has a weak status within the Mekong countries. This Master s thesis forms international, national and local interest groups of water use and analyzes their power relations and resources to affect water management. The state is seen as the salient actor as it has the formal responsibility of the water resources and of the coordination between the actions of different levels. In terms of water use this study focuses on production, in management on planning and in power relations on the resources. Water resources of Cambodia are seen consisting of the Mekong River and Tonle Sap Lake and the time span of the study is between the years 1991 and 2006. The material consists of semi-structured interviews collected during summer 2006 in Finland and in Cambodia as well as of literature and earlier studies. The results of the study show that the central state has difficulties to coordinate the actions of different actors because of its resource deficit and internal conflicts. The lessons of history and the vested interests of the actors of the state make it difficult to plan and to strengthen legislation. It seems that the most needed resources at the central state level are intangible as at the village level instead, the tangible resources (fulfilling the basic needs) are primarily important. The local decision-making bodies, NGOs and private sector mainly require legislation and legitimacy to support their role. However, the civil society and the international supporters are active and there are possibilities for new cooperation networks.
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(Helsingin yliopistoUniversity of HelsinkiHelsingfors universitet, 2001)
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