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Browsing by study line "Ympäristö- ja luonnonvaraekonomia"

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  • Juhanko, Kaisa (2022)
    Ilmastonmuutos aiheuttaa uudenlaisia riskejä yhteiskunnan toiminnoille sekä toimialoille, ja fyysisten ilmastoriskien lisäksi se heijastaa suuren kokonaisriskin taloudelle ja rahoitusjärjestelmälle. Tämän takia myös finanssialan toimijoiden kannattaa ennakoida tulevia muutoksia ja varautua ilmastoriskeihin. Ilmastoriskien hallinnan tueksi on kehitetty erilaisia ilmastopalveluita, jotka tukevat erityisesti ilmastonmuutokseen sopeutumista. Ilmastopalveluiden hyödyntäminen finanssialalla on kuitenkin vasta alkutekijöissään, sillä niiden potentiaaliset hyödyt sekä yhteiskunnalle että finanssialan toimijoille ovat vielä huonosti tunnettuja. Tässä pro gradu -tutkielmassa toteutettiin finanssialan toimijoille kohdennettu kysely, jonka tarkoituksena oli selvittää finanssialan toimijoiden suhtautumista suoriin ja välillisiin ilmastoriskeihin sekä organisaation ilmastopalveluiden käyttöä, tarvetta ja yhtiön yleistä kiinnostusta ilmastopalveluihin. Tuloksia tarkasteltiin erityisesti vakuutus- ja sijoitussektorien näkökulmista. Lisäksi esitämme kustannus-hyötyarviointimallin, jonka avulla ilmastopalveluiden potentiaalisia hyötyjä eli lisäarvoa käyttäjälle voidaan havainnollistaa. Teoreettisen mallin avulla voidaan tarkastella, milloin ilmastopalvelut tarjoavat lisäarvoa. Tulosten mukaan finanssialan toimijat ovat kiinnostuneita sekä suorista että välillisistä ilmastoriskeistä ja pyrkivät integroimaan niitä organisaation riskienhallintaan. Erilaiset ilmastoriskit kuitenkin koskettavat finanssialan toimijoita hieman eri tavoin. Vakuutussektorin katsottiin olevan erityisesti kiinnostunut ilmastonmuutoksen seurauksena aiheutuvista fyysisistä riskeistä sekä tulevan raportoinnin ja sääntelyn vaatimuksista ja vaikutuksista vakuutusalalle. Ilmastopalveluiden kannalta erityisesti vahinkovakuutus kaipasi parempia ilmastopalveluita ja -tietoa. Sijoitus- ja varainhoitosektorin näkökulmasta oleellinen uhka näytti olevan kiristyvän sääntelyn vaikutus varallisuuden arvoon esimerkiksi sijoituskohteiden tuottavuusodotusten kautta. Sijoitussektoria edustaneet organisaatiot seurasivatkin ilmastoriskejä sijoitusten ilmastopolitiikan, sijoituspäätöksien, sijoitussuunnitelmien sekä riski- ja vakavaraisuusarviointien kannalta. Kustannus- hyötyarviointimallin pohjalta voitiin todeta, että ilmastopalveluiden potentiaalinen lisäarvo käyttäjälle syntyy ilmastoriskien sopeutumiskustannusten tai oikein mitoitetun ennakoinnin eli suojauksen säästöistä. Ilmastopalvelut siis laskevat ilmastoriskien hallinnan kustannuksia optimaalisten toimien avulla pienemmän epävarmuuden takia. Mitä suurempi sopeutumiskustannus tai epävarmuus riittävän suojauksen tasosta toimialalla on, sitä suurempi niiden tarjoama lisäarvo on.
  • Suuronen, Juulia (2021)
    Forests play a central role in climate change mitigation actions, and substitution, that is the use of wood products in place of fossil intensive materials, has been recognized as a potential way to avoid emissions. While there are studies estimating the substitution impact of products, i.e., the avoided emissions, there is a lack of studies integrating market perspectives into substitution estimation. To contribute to this research gap, this study explores the market assumptions of substitution through the theoretical lenses of value chains and microeconomic theory on demand. The objectives are to recognize powerful decision-makers in the value chains, to establish a better understanding for the current state of substitution in the markets, and to explore the determinants of demand of the wood-based products. To limit the scope of this study, the use of pulp-based products was examined in the cases of packaging and textile sectors. Semi-structured interviews with 14 experts were arranged to discuss their views on substitution and demand of the pulp-based products in the chosen sectors. Additionally, a Likert scale was filled at the end of each interview to supplement the interview answers and enable elasticity and cross-price elasticity analyses to examine substitution. The sample of respondents was chosen through the use of snowball sampling and a matrix to recognize potential interviewees. First, the findings of this study suggest that in both sectors, the decision-making power on materials is held by the operators at the end of the value chain whereas the forest sector is located at the beginning of the chain. Second, in both sectors, there is willingness to find more sustainable material solutions, but the tools for this are lacking. In the case of packaging sector, the barrier capacities of plastic are unattainable with fiber-based materials, meaning that reducing plastic use does not always imply switching the feedstock itself. In the textile sector, the production of wood-based textile fibers is not yet scaled enough for it to compete with similar materials. However, the analysis of elasticities indicates that some substitution can be expected in both sectors. Third, a number of important determinants of demand were identified, yet no single factor could be identified as the most important one. This study concluded that there is room to improve the market assumptions for substitution impact estimation. In packages, the market preferences of fiber-based packaging in some uses give a rise for interpretational issues, while plastic reduction goals do not always imply switching to wood feedstock. In textiles, the new man-made cellulosic fibers (MMCFs) are expected to mostly substitute for viscose and fill the cellulosic gap from stagnating production of cotton instead of substituting for synthetic fibers. To conclude, it is central to integrate market data and concepts better into future substitution impact analyses to facilitate more realistic estimates.
  • Leppioja, Hilma (2023)
    Spare time activities are important for balancing modern life, but they cause environmental damage. Activities, such as attending music festivals have a significant impact to an individual's lifestyle material footprint. Material footprint aims to identify general human pressure on nature, and it helps to understand the natural resource use. Producing a mass event, such as Flow Festival, requires large amount of material flows. As the demand for materials continues to increase, so does the environmental impacts from material use. To meet the environmental goals set by the Paris Agreement and to curb natural resource depletion, one solution is to decrease material consumption. This master’s thesis is executed with in co-operation with D-mat ltd and it presents the material footprint calculation of Flow Festival 2022. The thesis includes a literature review that examines the material footprint, the MIPS concept, and material flow accounting. The subsequent research part includes the collection of consumption data, the footprint calculation, and its results. Also, sustainable solutions were created to decrease the material footprint of the festival. The total material footprint of the festival was 7,780 tonnes which translates to 86 kg per visitor per day, which is more or less equivalent to the daily lifestyle material footprint of an average Finn. There were nine different categories to determine the material footprint, with the visitors category contributing the most at 73.4% of the total material footprint. Other significant categories were food and beverages, stage production, and properties. The study used 'usage by Flow' factors that were partly developed through feedback from relevant experts and partly based on assumptions. Changing these factors could have a significant impact on the study's results. The study found that the visitors category has a significant influence on the ecological impact of the festival, particularly in regard to their transportation choices. Festival organisers have limited control over visitors' travel choices, but they can effectively reduce other categories, such as by increasing plant-based food offerings at the festival. As the average Finn's material footprint is expected to be reduced to a quarter by 2050, music festivals have a responsibility to reduce their material footprint, and all possible efforts should be made to achieve this. In the future, the sustainable solutions could be utilised for other similar mass events.
  • Kauppi, Patrik (2022)
    Uusiutuvan energia rooli on noussut yhä tärkeämmäksi osaksi ilmastonmuutoksen hillinnässä. Energian tarve tulee ennusteiden mukaan enemmän kuin tuplaantumaan seuraavan kahdenkymmenen vuoden aikana. Samaan aikaan energiasektori tuottaa yli puolet koko maailman ilmastopäästöistä. Suosituksi uusiutuvaksi energiamuodoksi etenkin Euroopassa on nousemassa tuulivoima. Tutkimuksessa keskitytään erityisesti merituulivoimalla tuotettuun energiaan ja siihen, miten energia saadaan siirrettyä kustannustehokkaimmalla tavalla mantereelle energiasiirtoverkon piiriin. Tarkasteltaviksi siirtotavoiksi valikoituivat sähkönsiirtokaapeli sekä vety. Sähkönsiirtokaapeli otettiin mukaan, koska se on hyvin perinteinen tapa siirtää energiaa. Vety otettiin mukaan, koska se on vieraampi ja vähemmän tutkittu siirtotapa. Tuulivoimalla tuotettu vety on lisäksi päästötöntä vihreää vetyä, kun taas yhä 2000-luvulla suosituin tapa tuottaa vetyä maakaasun avulla on päästöjä tuottava harmaa tapa. Vety mahdollistaa myös energian varastoinnin sähköenergiaa paremmin. Tutkimuksessa käytetään kolmea eri menetelmää, jotka ovat vahvuuksia, heikkouksia, mahdollisuuksia ja uhkia vertaileva SWOT-analyysi, sähkönsiirtokaapelia ja vedyn eri siirtotapoja vertaileva kustannusvaikuttavuusanalyysi sekä tutkimushaastattelu. SWOT-analyysin ja kustannusvaikuttavuusanalyysin tiedot on kerätty vertaisarvioidusta kirjallisuudesta. Vetyala on kuitenkin verrattain uusi ja vielä tutkimuksen kohteena etenkin energiasektorilla, joten kaikkea tietoa ei ollut vielä tutkittu tai tuotu julkisuuteen. Jotta kirjallisuudesta saatua käsitystä voitaisiin vahvistaa uusimmilla mahdollisilla tiedoilla tai vaihtoehtoisesti todeta kirjallisuudessa esiintyviä tietoja vanhoiksi tai epärealistisiksi, toteutettiin tutkimuksessa tutkimushaastattelu, jonka kysymykset esitettiin tuulivoima- sekä vetyalan asiantuntijoille. Tutkimuksen tuloksissa selvisi, että sähkönsiirtokaapeli on edullisin tapa siirtää energiaa merituulivoimalalta, jos välimatka oli alle 100 kilometriä. Tietoa sähkönsiirtokaapelin kustannuksista pitkällä, yli 100 kilometrin, välimatkalla ei kirjallisuudesta löytynyt. Yli 100 kilometrin välimatkalla vedyn siirto oli kannattavinta toteuttaa tankkerilla, alle 100 kilometrin matkalla kaasuputkella. Vedyn ja sen siirtämisen keskeisimmät hyvät puolet ovat runsaat saatavilla olevat resurssit, hyvä varastointimahdollisuus sekä suuret mahdollisuudet fossiilisten energiamuotojen korvaajana. Huonoina puolina ovat etenkin vihreän vedyn tuottamiseen tarvittavan elektrolyyserin korkea hinta, vedyn energiakäytön standardien puutteellisuus sekä vahva kytkeytyminen sähkön markkinahintaan, joka on vaihdellut vuoden 2022 aikana paljon. Jotta ilmastopäästöjä saadaan vähennettyä, muutokset energiasektorilla nähdään välttämättöminä. 2020-luvulla tuulivoimasta ja vedystä on tullut yksi potentiaalisimmista vaihtoehdoista. Vety parantaa energian tuotantovarmuutta etenkin niissä maissa, joissa riippuvuus fossiilisten energialähteiden tuonnista on suurta ja samalla potentiaali kasvihuonekaasupäästöjen vähentämisessä on korkea. Vedyn tuotanto saattaa ainakin aluksi painottua lähelle teollisuuslaitoksia, joissa vedyn kysyntä on suurta. Liikennesektorilla kysyntä todennäköisesti painottuu ainakin aluksi lauttaliikenteeseen sekä tieliikenteessä raskaaseen kalustoon. Vihreä vedyn tuottaminen on vielä kallista, mutta aikana, jolloin fossiilivapaus on yksi tavoiteltavista arvoista, voi vihreä vety nousta harmaata vetyä suositummaksi hinnasta riippumatta.
  • Aalto, Laura (2023)
    Metsiin ja metsien käyttöön kohdistuu yhteiskunnassa monenlaisia odotuksia, jotka osittain saattavat jopa kilpailla toistensa kanssa. Metsäpolitiikassa asetetaan tavoitteita monipuolisesta, aktiivisesta ja tavoitteellisesta metsien käytöstä. Suomessa yksityismetsänomistajat muodostavat suurimman yksittäisen metsänomistajaryhmän ja heidän päätöksensä ja toimintansa vaikuttavat oleellisesti metsien käyttöön. Toiselle metsänomistus voi olla liiketoimintaa, kun toiselle se on taas lähempänä omaisuudenhallintaa. Joka tapauksessa metsä on osa omistajansa varallisuutta ja taloutta. Tutkielman tavoitteena on selvittää, millaiset taustapiirteet vaikuttavat metsänomistajien käyttämiin kannattavuuden arviointitapoihin, ja onko löydettävissä sellaisia tekijöitä joihin vaikuttamalla voitaisiin tukea yritysmäisen yksityismetsätalouden toimintaedellytyksiä. Metsänomistuksen yritysmäinen toiminta voi liittyä muuhunkin kuin puunmyyntiin, ja tutkielmassa selvitetään lisäksi, miten metsänomistajien kannattavuusnäkemykset vaikuttavat kiinnostukseen myydä hiilensidontaa tai luontoarvoja metsistään. Tutkimuksessa hyödynnetään Metsänomistaja 2020 -tutkimushankkeen aineistoa. Käytetty aineisto tulee kyselyn perusosan lisäksi osaotoksesta, joka käsitteli muun muassa metsätalouden kannattavuutta, metsien tuottamia hyötyjä ja ekosysteemipalveluita. Tutkimuksessa käytetään logistista regressiota, jonka avulla tutkitaan miten selittävinä muuttujina käytetyt metsänomistajien ja heidän tilojensa taustapiirteet selittivät kannattavuuden eri arviointitapojen käyttöä. Multinomiaalista logistista regressiota käytetään apuna selvitettäessä, miten metsänomistajien kannattavuusnäkemykset vaikuttavat heidän kiinnostukseensa tuottaa ja myydä ekosysteemipalveluita. Tulosten perusteella metsätalouden kannattavuuden arviointitapojen käytön vetoa kasvattavissa taustapiirteissä on metsänomistajan aktiivisuuteen ja metsäpalveluiden käyttöön viittaavia tekijöitä. Toisaalta myös miessukupuoli, korkeampi koulutus, ammattiasema palkansaajana tai yrittäjänä, korkeampi tulotaso, sekä metsäammattilaisen oma-aloitteinen yhteydenotto metsänomistajaan kasvattavat vetoa arvioida kannattavuutta jollain mittarilla. Tulosten mukaan kannattavuutta tarkkailevilla metsänomistajilla on myös kohonnut veto olla kiinnostunut ekosysteemipalveluiden myynnistä verrattuna kannattavuutta tarkkailemattomiin metsänomistajiin. Myös käytettyjen kannattavuusmittareiden lukumäärä kasvattaa vetoa olla kiinnostunut ekosysteemipalveluiden myynnistä. Metsätaloudellisesti aktiiviset metsänomistajat vaikuttavat siis ajattelevan laajemmin metsänsä ansaintamahdollisuuksista. Jatkossa yksityismetsänomistajien kannattavuustutkimuksissa olisi tarpeen syventää tarkastelua metsätalouden kannattavuuden arvioinnin ja erilaisten metsäpalveluiden käytön suhteesta. Tämä vahvistaisi johtopäätöksiä metsäpalveluiden käytön yhteydestä metsätalouden kannattavuuden arviointitapoihin ja niiden merkityksestä yritysmäisen metsätalouden lisäämisessä.
  • Korhonen, Olli (2021)
    Metsien rooli ilmastonmuutoksen hillinnässä on noussut yhä tärkeämmäksi osaksi ilmastopolitiikan toteuttamista niiden sitoessa ja varastoidessa hiiltä ilmakehästä. Metsät ovat yksi Suomen tärkeimmistä luonnonvaroista, minkä johdosta niihin kytkeytyy useita tavoitteita taloudellisen arvon varmistamisesta monimuotoisuuden turvaamiseen ja hiilen sitomisen lisäämiseen. Suomen metsistä suurin osa on yksityisten metsänomistajien omaisuutta. Siten yksityisten metsänomistajien preferenssit ja tavoitteet omistukselle on olennaista huomioida, jotta metsät saadaan kytkettyä myös osaksi ilmasto- ja ympäristöpolitiikan tavoitteita. Tässä tutkielmassa tarkastellaan metsänomistajien suhtautumista hiilen sitomisen ja varastoinnin lisäämiseen osana omien metsien hoitoa. Aineistona hyödynnetään vuonna 2019 kerättyä kyselyä, joka tuotettiin Suomalainen metsänomistaja 2020 - tutkimushankkeessa. Kysely sisälsi perusotoksen sekä kolme erityisteemoihin keskittyvää osaotosta. Yksi osaotoksista (n = 2250) keskittyi metsien käytön ja käsittelyn hyväksyttävyyteen, jossa kysyttiin metsänomistajien suhtautumista lisätä hiilen sitomista osassa omia metsiä korvausta vastaan. Näistä kysymyksistä tarkastellaan logistisen regression avulla metsänomistajien kiinnostusta myydä hiilensidontapalvelua suhteessa omistajien ja tilojen taustapiirteisiin. Lisäksi yleisellä tasolla havainnoidaan metsänomistajien suhtautumista toteuttaa hiilen sitomista ja varastointia edistäviä metsänhoidollisia toimenpiteitä sekä niiden potentiaalista ilmastovaikutusta. Yksityisistä metsänomistajista puolet suhtautuu myönteisesti hiilensidontapalvelun tuottamiseen omassa metsässä korvausta vastaan. Merkitsevinä tekijöinä metsänomistajien ja tilojen taustapiirteitä tarkasteltaessa nousivat esiin ikä, koulutus sekä vastaajan näkemys omasta metsästä hiilinieluna. Tarkastelluista hiilen sitomista ja varastointia lisäävistä metsänhoidollisista toimenpiteistä yleisesti myönteisimmin suhtaudutaan jatkuvaan kasvatukseen, josta on kiinnostunut selvästi yli puolet vastanneista. Toimenpiteiden ilmastovaikutuksia arvioitaessa oli turvemailla toteutettavalla jatkuvalla kasvatuksella suurin päästövähennyspotentiaali ja se on useiden metsänomistajien näkökulmasta kiinnostava keino ottaa käyttöön omissa metsissä, jos siitä saisi korvauksen. Kokonaisvaltainen kestävä kehitys on jatkossa yhä olennaisempi osa metsien hoitoa, minkä vuoksi onkin tärkeää havainnoida, miten erilaiset tavoitteet ovat yhteensovitettavissa. On olennaista tunnistaa, millaiset metsänomistajat ovat potentiaalisesti kiinnostuneita tuottamaan hiilensidontaa ja millaisin metsänhoitomenetelmin voidaan saavuttaa kustannustehokkaasti mahdollisimman suuri ilmastovaikutus. Päätöksenteossa ja neuvonnassa tulee huomioida yksityisten metsänomistajien erilaiset tavoitteet omistukselleen, heidän halukkuuteensa ja valmiutensa toteuttaa eri toimenpiteitä sekä toimenpiteiden houkuttelevuus ja tarkoituksenmukaisuus eri kasvupaikoilla.
  • Niiranen, Mailis (2021)
    The microproduction of solar photovoltaics (PV) has grown enormously in recent years in Finland, and it is expected to grow even further due to the ambitious renewable energy targets and the on-going smart energy transition. Nevertheless, there is a lack of country-level statistical analysis on the topic. This thesis studies which sociodemographic, economic, and geographical factors explain the microproduction of solar electricity in Finland. The thesis consists of a literature review and statistical analysis on the electricity distribution system operator (DSO) level. The response variables are the number of prosumer contracts and the capacity of solar PV microproduction. The data, which were gathered from various open sources, is analyzed in a descriptive manner followed by multiple linear regression analysis. The analysis uses the ordinary least square method. In addition, profitability calculations are made to study economic incentives and barriers to the adoption of a PV system. The results suggest that the microproduction of solar PV is connected to non-urban areas and higher mean age. Instead, there are not that many separate prosumers in urban areas, but single systems’ capacities are more extensive there. The analysis showed that electricity price has a significant impact on the microproduction of solar PV. The profitability calculations support this result: electricity price substantially affects the viability of solar PV system investment. Thus, the introduction of financial incentives could enhance the adoption of solar PV systems among households. This thesis offers a comprehensive overview of small-scale solar electricity production in Finland. However, the characteristics of the microproduction of solar PV are complex and involve various interactions that are difficult to capture in aggregated data. This offers an opportunity to repeat the analysis with a more detailed geospatial dataset in the future.
  • Tikka, Tia Sara Karoliina (2021)
    Arktinen alue on suuri ja se koostuu ominaisuuksiltaan erilaisesta merestä, sekä sitä ympäröivästä maasta. Arktinen alue toimii kotina monille, ja se tuottaa elintärkeitä ekosysteemipalveluita niin paikallisille, kuin muillekin kansoille. Merenkulku on tärkeä osa Arktisen alueen toimintaa ja tänä päivänä suurin osa merenkulusta kohdistuu joko Arktiselle alueelle tai sieltä poispäin ja kauttakulkuliikennettä on toistaiseksi vain vähän. Tulevaisuudessa voimme kuitenkin odottaa merenkäynnin volyymin kasvavan, tuoden mukanaan erilaisia laivoja, eri määränpäillä ja eri tarkoitusperillä. Volyymin kasvu riippuu merenkulun osalta monesta seikasta, mutta näitä vahvistaa kuitenkin tavanomaisten reittien ruuhkautuminen, sekä ilmastonmuutoksen mukanaan tuomat vaikutukset, kuten jääpeitteen pieneneminen. Tutkielma suoritettiin laadullisena tutkimuksena, jossa perustan loi kattava kirjallisuuskatsaus. Pääasiallisena tiedonkeruutapana olivat kuitenkin haastattelut, joiden pohjana kirjallisuuskatsaus toimi. Haastatteluissa haastateltiin eri merenkulun asiantuntijoita, jotka toivat omaa osaamistaan esille erillisten teemojen kautta. Haastattelujen tuloksen analysoitiin laadullisen tutkimuksen menetelmin, käyttämällä siihen tarkoitettua ohjelmistoa. Niin haastatteluista, kuin kirjallisuuskatsauksestakin nousi esille paljon samoja ongelmia ja havaintoja. Työ keskittyi erityisesti vakuutuksiin ja siihen, kuinka vakuutuksilla voidaan ohjata ja hallita riskejä Arktisessa merenkäynnissä. Tutkielman pääasiallisena tuloksena nousi esille, että siinä missä vakuutussektori toimii hyvin riskin välittäjänä, niitä ei kuitenkaan käytetä tehokkaasti riskien hillintään. Vakuutussektorin nähtiin toimivan kuitenkin yleisellä tasolla hyvin ja tarkoituksenmukaisesti. Suurin ongelmatiikka tuli esille tietoon liittyen. Tietoa koettiin olevan liian vähän ja sitä on vaikea saada. Myös regulaatioiden merkitys korostui haastatteluissa ja sitä toivottiin lisättäväksi Arktiseen merenkulkuun liittyvissä asioissa.
  • Makkonen, Pinja (2023)
    Forests provide important ecosystem services for humans. As climate change continues, disturbances such as extreme weather conditions and drought become more common all over the globe. This causes pressures to forests and forest owners whose incomes might depend on the harvesting profits. This thesis studies natural disturbance risk in profit maximizing forestry and optimizes forest rotation time by maximizing the bare land value while including the risk. The thesis aims to answer what is the optimal rotation with natural disturbances, how the results change when another tree species is introduced and how the share of trees changes the results in the case of natural disturbances. The optimization problem is first analysed analytically and then numerically in MATLAB. In the analytical part, first the optimum is solved for the normal Faustmann rotation model and then the Faustmann model is modified to include a mixture of two different tree species. After that the optimal rotation and bare land value are solved for normal Faustmann model with natural disturbance risk included. Lastly the natural disturbance risk is included to the two species rotation model. Numerical calculations are done for all the four cases: normal Faustmann, Faustmann with a mixture of two species, natural disturbance risk for one species and natural disturbance risk for the two species mixture. The data for mathematical calculations is from Bollandsås, Buongirno and Gobakken (2007) study and the Finnish parameter values are modified. The studied tree species in the numerical model are spruce and birch. The results show that when a second species, in this case birch, is added to the Faustmann-like model for two species mixture, the rotation gets longer and the bare land value decreases. The model with disturbance risk is studied with different disturbance risk probabilities and the results indicate that when the risk increases the rotation time gets shorter and the bare land value decreases. When a second species is added to the natural disturbance model, the results are calculated for different salvage shares. The risk this time depends on the share of birch and the risk decreases when the share of birch is increased. The results show that when the salvage share increases in the optimal solution, the share of spruce and bare land value increases. However, the optimal rotation time does not change that much. The results are similar in other studies that study a similar topic. When the natural disturbance risk is included, the optimal rotation gets shorter, and the bare land value decreases and these results are aligned with other studies. The results with natural disturbances and two tree species are new, as the rotation time does not change much between the different salvage shares. The results indicate that dependency between risk probability and the share of birch appears reversing the effects of birch lengthening the rotation time and risk probability shortening the rotation time.
  • Pitkäranta, Nelli (2023)
    Sähkö on nopeimmin kasvava lopullinen energiamuoto, ja sen kysynnän odotetaan kasvavan nopeasti tulevina vuosikymmeninä. Markkinoille tarvitaan läpinäkyvämpää ja tarkempaa päästölaskentaa, vihreän siirtymän ja kansallisten hiilidioksidipäästötavoitteiden nopeammaksi saavuttamiseksi. Monet organisaatiot kehittävät parhaillaan strategioita tuntitason hiilineutraaliuuteen, sillä monien yksityisten uusiutuvan energian hankintojen kunnianhimo ylittää olemassa olevan sääntelyn tavoitteet. Yritysten kestävyysjohtamisen korkeat standardit ohjaavat siirtymistä kohti uusiutuvan energian ajallista täsmäytystä tai "24/7-täsmäytystä", mikä voisi myös lisätä uskottavuutta hiilineutraaliusväitteisiin sekä vähentää päästöoikeuksien kaksinkertaista laskemista ja viherpesua. Toistaiseksi sähkön alkuperää on seurattu markkinapohjaisilla vihreillä sertifikaateilla; Euroopassa Guarantees of Origin, jotka mahdollistavat sähkön vuosittaisen tai kuukausittaisen kulutuksen yhdistämisen uusiutuvaan energiaan. Vihreän sähkön osuuden kasvaessa sähköntuotannossa, sähköntuotanto kuitenkin siirtyy aiempaa ajoittaisemmaksi ja vaihtelevammaksi. Kaikilla uusiutuvan energian teknologioilla on omanlaisensa tuotantoprofiilit sekä kausittaiset ja päivänsisäiset vaihtelut. Täten vihreän sähkön kulutus ei aina vastaa sen tuntikohtaista saatavuutta. Lisäksi nykyiset vihreät sertifikaattijärjestelmät eivät heijasta riittävästi uusiutuvan energian oikea-aikaista saatavuutta eivätkä näin ollen edistä investointeja, jotka voisivat tarjota järjestelmän joustavuutta ja vihreän energian ympärivuorokautista saatavuutta. Tämän ongelman ratkaisemiseksi on parhaillaan kehitteillä pilottiversioita vihreän sähkön sertifikaattijärjestelmästä, joka mahdollistaisi sähkön tuotannon ja kulutuksen tuntikohtaisen täsmäytyksen, sillä siirtyminen kohti vihreän energian 24/7-täsmäytystä herättää yhä enemmän kiinnostusta. Ennen uusien instrumenttien ottamista mukaan markkinoille on kuitenkin välttämätöntä selvittää niiden mahdolliset markkinavaikutukset. Tässä tutkielmassa esittelemme tuntisertifikaattimarkkinoiden taloustieteellisen mallin ja vertaamme 24/7-täsmäytyksen volyymi- ja hintavaikutuksia vihreän sähkön sertifikaateilla perinteisiin sertifikaattimarkkinoihin, joissa sähkönkulutusta täsmäytetään uusiutuvan energian kanssa vuosittain. Analysoimme myös, kuinka kuluttajan hyöty tuntikohtaisista vihreistä sertifikaateista vaihtelee eri ajankohtien välillä, kun uusiutuvan energian saatavuus vaihtelee. Havaitsemme, että kuluttajien hyöty tuntikohtaisten sertifikaattien hankinnasta laskee uusiutuvan energian tuotannon kasvaessa. Näin ollen kuluttajan hyöty sertifikaateista on suurin silloin, kun myös korkeapäästöisen energian osuus on korkea. Tuntikohtaiset vihreät sertifikaatit voisivat siis tarjota eniten hyötyä sekä kuluttajille että tuottajille niinä tunteina, jolloin uusiutuvaa energiaa on tarjolla vähemmän. Havaitsemme myös, että tuntikohtainen täsmäytys voisi joko lisätä tai vähentää kuluttajan uusiutuvan energian hankintakustannuksia ja tuottajan tuloja yksittäisten tuntien sisällä verrattuna vuosittaiseen tai kuukausittaiseen täsmäyttämiseen. Näin ollen tuntikohtainen sertifiointi voisi tarjota lisähyötyä teknologioille, joita tarvitaan täydelliseen järjestelmän laajuiseen hiilidioksidipäästöjen nollaamiseen, kuten energian varastointiratkaisuille. Näin ollen tuntikohtaisen sertifikaattijärjestelmän kehittämisessä tulisi keskittyä tämän vaikutuksen korostamiseen, mikä voisi edelleen kannustaa investointeja sähkömarkkinajärjestelmän joustavuuteen. Tarvitaan kuitenkin lisätutkimusta mahdollisten vaikutusten selvittämiseksi erityisesti sähkömarkkina-alueilla, joissa uusiutuvan energian osuus on jo korkea. Lisäksi täytyy vielä selvittää, onko tällaiselle järjestelmälle kysyntää yksityissektorilla ja johtaisiko tuntikohtainen täsmäytys yhteiskunnan kannalta optimaalisesti korkeampiin päästövähennyksiin kuin perinteiset sertifikaattijärjestelmät.
  • Laukkanen, Matti (2020)
    This study analyses the effects of carbon subsidy schemes on the optimal forest management in forest sites of different productivity. Forest stand level analysis shows the changes in the optimal stand management due to carbon subsidies. Market level analysis evaluates the market level implications of mutual and unilateral carbon subsidy policies and their effects outside the policy area. In the first chapter, we study the effects of carbon subsidies on a forest stand level. The results show that carbon subsidies lengthen the optimal rotation period, increase the annual timber output and increase the amount of CO2 sequestered in the forest stand. A sufficiently high carbon price leads to forest conservation. All the effects are stronger in the forest of poor productivity. The market level analysis presents an age-class structured model with an endogenous timber price and alternative land use. The numerical examples show that, in addition to the effects shown in the stand-level analysis, carbon subsidies encourage afforestation. An increase in the annual timber output may lead to a lower stumpage price. Unilateral policies may lead to an increase in timber output inside the policy, which decreases the timber price and result in deforestation outside the policy. As a sufficiently high carbon price leads to forest conservation, timber price increases and results in afforestation and decrease carbon emissions outside the policy. The results are in contradiction with the common hypothesis that increasing carbon sequestration in forests by unilateral policy would inevitably lead to an increase in carbon emissions outside the policy area.
  • Sarvola, Inka-Mari (2022)
    Reindeer (Rangifer tarandus L.) is an integral part of ecosystems across the northern boreal regions, and reindeer husbandry is an important socio-cultural factor, especially for indigenous people. Currently, reindeer husbandry in Fennoscandia is confronted with deterioration of pasture areas, and the decreasing of reindeer number has often been offered as a solution. However, in most reindeer herding districts, forestry has also strongly decreased the sustainable production capacity of winter pastures and therefore has had a significant role in pasture deterioration in addition to high reindeer numbers. The interaction between forestry and reindeer husbandry has often been studied qualitatively, ecologically, or with simple bio-economic models from the perspective of forestry. In this thesis, I use a detailed interdisciplinary ecological-economical model to study how the rotation forestry affects the economics of reindeer husbandry. The research questions are 1) how does the length of forest rotation period and 2) the management practices such as soil scarification and leaving of harvesting residues affect the economically optimal reindeer husbandry. I expand a novel ecological-economical reindeer husbandry optimization model to include the effects of forestry on the ground and arboreal lichen with an assumption of normal forest structure. The effects of forestry on the ground and arboreal lichen are based on previous literature. Modern dynamic optimization algorithms are used to solve the model for the optimal number of reindeer, annual net revenues, lichen biomass on pastures, and the level of supplementary feeding under different forest rotation lengths and management scenarios with zero and positive interest rates. The results show that the length of forest rotation period affects the economically optimal solution. When pasture rotation is used, shortening the forest rotation length decreases the optimal number of reindeer, annual income, and the lichen biomass in pastures, but increases the amount of supplementary feed given. When pasture rotation is not used, shortening the forest rotation length decreases the number of reindeer, annual net revenues, and supplementary feeding, but increases the lichen biomass. Soil scarification and harvesting residues lower the annual net revenues of reindeer husbandry by 1-15% depending on the forest rotation length and pasture rotation. The longer is the forest rotation length, the less the annual net revenues are affected by the forest management practices. Higher interest levels lead to higher reindeer numbers and a higher level of supplementary feeding, but also to lower lichen biomass and annual net revenues from reindeer husbandry. The results of this thesis support the earlier findings of negative effects of rotation forestry and short rotation lengths on reindeer husbandry, and estimations that reindeer husbandry is more resilient if pasture rotation is used. As the economical sensibility of rotation forestry in Lapland has currently been questioned, even-aged forestry could offer a solution with the best management scenarios for both parties. The results of this thesis support infinitely long forest rotation length without soil scarification. This thesis also highlights the need for interdisciplinary co-design of ecological studies to ensure that they are suitable for creating complex interdisciplinary optimization models.
  • Närhi, Lotta (2022)
    Boreal forests fulfil a myriad of ecological, social and economic functions in modern society, which is why it is crucial to manage them in the best way possible. The prevailing forest management strategy in Finland has been rotation forestry, but a Finnish citizens’ initiative and the new EU forest strategy for 2030 have for ecological reasons been calling for a reduction in clearcuts and a switch to continuous cover forestry. While a growing number of economic-ecological optimization studies illustrate the economic aspects of optimal management regime choice in Nordic conditions, the understanding remains incomplete. To contribute to this line of research, this thesis studies the economically optimal management regime and species composition of mixed-species boreal forests with a previously unexamined species combination: Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and silver birch (Betula pendula Roth). The analysis is based on a theoretically sound and generalized stand-level economic-ecological model that maximizes the net present value of forestry income. In this setup, the optimal management regime is determined endogenously and flexibly, by dynamically optimizing both the rotation period and the timing and intensity of thinnings in a tri-level structure. All model details are empirically estimated. Forest stand development is described by size-structured empirical growth models by Pukkala et al. (2011, 2013) and by Pukkala et al. (2021), of which the latter has not been used in this line of analysis before. The results of this thesis show, for the first time empirically, that it can be economically optimal to conduct near-clearcuts without investing in artificial regeneration afterwards. Near-clearcuts create favourable conditions for utilizing the unharvested young trees and natural regeneration of pioneer species in generating a new tree cohort. This management strategy is found to be suitable for birch-dominated pine–birch stands with a 1% interest rate, as well as pure birch stands. With a 3% interest rate, continuous cover forestry becomes optimal for mixed stands. A further outcome of this thesis is that continuous cover management of pure pine stands is found to be more viable than in previous optimization studies. Further, it is shown that it is economically beneficial to let birch regenerate in a pine stand and even dominate it, due to improvements in overall ingrowth. The characteristics of the optimal solutions are, however, dependent on the ecological growth model used. In light of the cases studied in this thesis, neither rotation forestry nor continuous cover forestry is categorically superior in terms of timber income. There are demonstrably many cases where taking advantage of the environmental benefits of continuous cover forestry and higher tree species diversity is optimal also with respect solely to maximizing timber revenues.
  • Ilvonen, Suvi (2021)
    The importance of multipurpose forests is increasing since forests can simultaneously provide solutions for climate change mitigation, biodiversity protection, and the diverse needs of humans. Therefore, forest management practices, various management objectives, and forest-related policies become necessary parts of sustainable forestry. A notable share of forest management decisions depends on the preferences and motives of private forest owners, and an increasing number of owners are interested in other than timber values in their properties. In addition, changes in forest ownership structures and varied use of forest management alternatives emphasize understanding private forest owners’ management motives. This thesis aims to examine Finnish private forest owners and their forest management preferences regarding the support of biodiversity values and interest in wood-material production for the needs of the bioeconomy. The survey data were collected in spring 2020 and included a choice experiment with three forest management schemes. Two hypothetical management contracts, timber-oriented, and nature-oriented strategies, were used as alternatives for the conventional management practices. The long-term effects from each management scheme were described with the changes in profit, biodiversity, carbon stock, climate change-induced damages, and one-time subsidy. The survey data were analyzed using conditional logit, random parameters logit, and latent class logit models. Forest owners consider biodiversity values and raw material supply for the bioeconomy important. However, the results suggest that, on average, forest owners may not be willing to accept the timber-oriented management contract, whereas the nature-oriented management strategy is generally a more preferred option. The latent class model reveals three forest owner types with different preferences and management objectives. The largest share of the respondents is identified as Traditionalists who prefer conventional management practices to other alternatives. They might be reluctant to change their strategies despite the level of subsidies. The smallest group, Environmentalists, is oriented towards environmental and natural values in their forests and would most likely use continuous cover forestry and safeguard biodiversity values. The monetary support does not necessarily impact their management decisions. The rest of the respondents are described as Profit-oriented owners who may be a potential target for various forest management contracts. They consider their property more often as financial security and could be motivated by compensation. The possibility for productive and viable forests has a considerable impact on forest owners’ management decisions. However, the results indicate broad interest in various management alternatives, and the segment-based analyses reveal different forest management objectives among the owners. Therefore, understanding the diversity between forest owners helps policymakers to target specific policy goals more effectively.
  • Van Kooten, Sebastiaan Cornelis Antonius (2022)
    Over the past century, several protection schemes have been introduced in Finland, among which more recently the Natura 2000 programme. As of date, no large scale analysis of the economic effects of protection programmes exist in Finland, even though protection schemes can have large distorting effects. This thesis utilised over 1 million property transactions in Finland from the period 1990-2020 in a hedonic pricing model to analyse the net economic effects of environmental protection. Difference-in-Differences analyses were applied to assess the effects on productive and environmental value of property transactions. This thesis has provided quantified estimates of the economic effects on different stakeholder groups. Average productive value was found to decrease by 15.46% inside protected areas, whereas environmental value increased by 6.76% inside and bordering a protected area. Forest land and land acquired for protection were most reduced in value, whereas residential houses and cottages were found to profit from protection. A net realised welfare gain of €1,127,000,000 was estimated over the period 1990-2020 for the Natura 2000 programme. Besides the net societal welfare gain, distributional disparities were found across stakeholder groups and spatial locations. This research calls for the accurate inclusion of all interests to guarantee net gains for all stakeholders in future protection programmes.
  • Mutila, Matias (2021)
    Mining is globally one of the fastest growing and developing industries (Vasara, 2019). It is important to find functional and reliable methods via academic research to solve societal issues in a rapidly evolving industry. Such a method is, for example, a valuation method for a producing mine which determines the value of the mine for the owner with sufficient accuracy. This thesis studied the theory of Hotelling's valuation principle and valuation method of Cairns and Davis (1998) and their role in the economic literature. In the empirical part of the thesis, the net present value of the Siilinjärvi phosphate mine was calculated, and sensitivity analysis was performed for the determined data using the studied valuation methods, instead of statistical analysis of the methods. The thesis answered the following questions: what are the effects of a valuation method and the available data on the net present value of a single producing mine? How are the above-mentioned impacts possibly reflected in social value of the mine and thus in social decision-making? In the analysis of the thesis, the base year was defined as 2020. Data was determined to describe the base year, and sensitivity analysis was performed relative to it. The estimated data described the production of phosphate concentrate, and the valuation was outlined accordingly. The net present value of the Siilinjärvi phosphate mine, calculated using the Hotelling valuation principle, was 663,27 million US dollars. The net present value obtained using the valuation method of Cairns and Davis was 378.23 million US dollars. Thus, the Hotelling valuation principle also produces higher social value than the valuation method of Cairns and Davis. And it is possible that using the Hotelling valuation principle, a single mining project would be approved, which would not necessarily be accepted using the valuation method of Cairns and Davis. The effects of the available data are transmitted to the net present value obtained by the valuation method and thus to the social value and decision-making. The magnitude of the effects depends, for example, on the method used and the magnitude of the error in the estimates. Future research could be testing the valuation method of Cairns and Davis with statistical means to allow the valuation method to gain empirical support. Also, the valuation method of Cairns and Davis valuation method could be extended to cover the ecological and social impacts of mining.
  • Havukainen, Anna (2024)
    The essential role of Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR) in mitigating further climate warming, alongside substantial emission reductions, is undeniable. However, the actions to remove carbon dioxide are not without consequences, necessitating the integration of external costs into decision-making processes based on cost-efficiency. Previous literature has dominantly focused on the private costs associated with carbon dioxide removal, excluding external costs and their impact on society. The objective of this thesis was to identify the Negative Emission Technologies and Practices (NETPs) that yield the lowest social costs, thereby providing insights into which NETPs should be prioritized for investments in CDR. This evaluation was conducted by developing a Social Marginal Abatement Cost Curve (SMACC) framework, to examine the potentials and social costs of various NETPs. The year under analysis was 2050, the target year for the European Union to achieve net-zero emissions. Results of a comprehensive life-cycle analysis, including impacts on human health and ecosystems, were monetized to establish external costs for each NETP. These external costs were subsequently incorporated with private costs, gathered from existing literature. The final step involved combining these social costs with NETPs’ removal potentials to construct the SMACC curve. The SMACC identified the most feasible NETPs as Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS) with combustion technology, Direct Air Capture and Storage (DACCS) with High-Temperature Solid-Sorbent technology, and Enhanced Weathering. The study found that each impact category had a considerably different impact on the SMACC results, with human health impacts and ecosystem impacts providing distinct insights. The socially optimal prioritization was proved to be significantly different from cost-effective prioritization, indicating the importance of incorporating external costs into the analysis. As key conclusions, the policies applied to NETPs necessitate careful application to avoid supporting the implementation of NETPs associated with high negative externalities. Furthermore, to achieve optimal outcomes across the globe, the SMACC necessitates careful consideration of the characteristics of each region where the NETPs are to be implemented. The thesis recommends further research on the economic valuation of LCA results.
  • Laine, Christine (2021)
    Aquaculture production has enabled the considerably increased consumption of fish for the past decades. While fish is a good source of nutrition, its production is causing negative externalities for instance in a form of eutrophicating nutrient releases. These are attempted to diminish by regulation which has in turn enhanced the stagnation of the aquaculture sector in the EU. Most of the production is currently performed in marine net cages but to harness the economic potential of the sector without further deteriorating the waters, new, more environmentally sustainable options are sought. Bringing the production to land-based indoor facilities with recirculating water is one plausible option. The nutrient releases from these Recirculating Aquaculture Systems (RAS) are significantly smaller as most of the nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) can be purified. However, despite the efficiency perks the indoor rearing with adjustable conditions is yielding, the operation and especially the investment costs are likely to be much higher than in the prevailing cage-based production decreasing the desirability of the technology. I conducted a social cost-benefit analysis (CBA) to compare these two alternative aquaculture production technologies, net cage and RAS, from the society’s perspective. In addition to private costs, i.e., investment and production costs, the analysis takes into consideration the eutrophication damage of the released nutrients. The eutrophication damage is determined in monetary terms to make them commensurate with the other costs. For the same reason, all the costs and benefits are discounted to present values prior the comparison. The analysis has special focus on the Baltic Sea and Finland. Due to its dominance in the Finnish aquaculture production, rainbow trout was chosen as the main specie to study along whitefish as a higher value specie. To further examine the economic performance of RAS technology, pike perch production is also included. In addition, due to the uncertainties regarding the cost factors and developing technology, I present a comprehensive sensitivity analysis regarding the discount rate, investment costs of RAS, producer price, and eutrophication damage valuation. When it comes to large scale production of rainbow trout, the results show higher net present value (NPV) for the net cage production. However, when the eutrophication damage costs are taken into consideration the difference between net cage and RAS production decreases. RAS technology seems to be highly profitable in whitefish production, implying that is economically sensible to focus on higher value species. Under the strict environmental legislation regarding the Weser ruling of the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD) activities preventing or hindering to reach the good environmental status waters cannot be allowed. As this can also cause denial of permits for RAS production and further decreasing the distinctive nutrient load of the net cage aquaculture is a challenge considering the economic and technological restrictions, one solution could be offsetting the nutrient load. Gypsum amendment of fields has been found to be a cost-effective measure in preventing phosphorus releases; thus, the initial analysis is extended to include onetime nutrient offsets from farmers. According to the results, it is sensible offsetting measure as the environmental benefits from offsetting are higher than the costs of doing so under net cage production and at the same level under RAS production. The current environmental regulation is affecting hardest on the point sources such as aquaculture farms. This is felt unfair by the fish farmers. To shed light on the issue, another social CBA examines the social net benefits of beef and cultured meat production and compares the NPVs with rainbow trout farming under net cage and RAS technologies. The analysis is conducted with respect to produced protein to make the alternative food sources commensurate. In addition to private costs and eutrophication damage costs of nutrients, it also includes the atmospheric damage costs of carbon dioxide emissions. The results show clear superiority of aquaculture as a protein producer. The thesis concludes that due to the efficiency of aquaculture in producing protein and its potential in the blue growth sector, it is definitely reasonable to seek sustainable ways to produce fish. While net cage technology is currently the best option for large scale aquaculture, RAS has potential on the niche market of higher value species. The technological development has tendency to decrease the costs related to the necessary equipment and if the technology is to overcome its other uncertainties, it may have an important role in the future. Nevertheless, the environmental regulation ought to be adjusted to enable the blue growth in an environmentally and financially sustainable manner.
  • Paajanen, Tiina Pauliina (2020)
    Forests are vital for biodiversity and climate change mitigation through carbon storage and sequestration. In Finland, forests are the most important renewable natural resource and forestry is significant for the national economy. In addition, forests are the largest carbon sinks of the land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF) sector and provide remarkable amount of biodiversity. The Finnish non-industrial private forest (NIPF) owners have significant potential to supply ecosystem services and have substantial opportunities regarding the forests, as 60% of the total area of forest land is privately owned. The NIPF owners may enhance the state of biodiversity and carbon sequestration by participating in the forest conservation programs. The regulations and inclusion of the LULUCF sector in the climate targets of the European Union (EU) and a 30% conservation target of land in the EU Biodiversity Directive are intensifying the pressure on further development of conservation programs. Hence, it is important to understand the behavior of the NIPF owners to motivate the program participation. The aim of the thesis is to get insight into the Finnish NIPF owners’ participation behavior in permanent forest conservation programs by using the choice experiment (CE) method. A novel conservation program is being planned in Finland and this survey processes it for the NIPF owners by using a survey questionnaire. The survey questionnaire was targeted to 5,010 NIPF owners and the overall response rate was 11.7%. The study provides analysis on specific non-participant group of protesters, attribute preferences of the conservation program as well as estimates of the willingness to accept (WTA) compensation for program participation. The forest conservation program is described with four attributes being the payment for biodiversity; payment for carbon sequestration; conduction of non-timber businesses and eligibility of the forest area. The sources behind preference heterogeneity regarding the conduction of non-timber businesses and eligibility of the forest area are examined using interactions in the econometric model. The results reveal that a significant share (77%) of serial non-participants are identified as protesters and should be excluded from the WTA estimates. Several socio-economic and attitudinal characteristics were found to statistically significantly influence on protest behavior. The probability to protest increases with e.g. older age, pensioners, female gender and renters for hunting club. Additionally, the protest behavior depends on a number of stated attitudinal statements. Using a binary logit model, the model estimates show that the WTA for program participation is considerably higher when protesters are included, being 16,032 €/ha and respectively 5,641 €/ha, when protesters are excluded. The results regarding the preferences reveal attitudinal and socio-economic aspects affecting statistically significantly on the program attribute of the eligibility of forest area. According to the analyses, the possibility to conduct non-timber businesses is rather irrelevant for the respondents. In addition, there are a few attitudinal factors that influence the preferences of the conduction of non-timber businesses which are statistically significant. However, none of the socio-economic factors regarding the preferences of the attribute are statistically significant. To our knowledge, this is the first study that aims to explain the sources behind protest behaviour as well as to investigate the conduction of non-timber businesses, in the context of permanent forest conservation program. The results provide novel information about protesters and preferences of program attributes of forest management requirements and conduction of non-timber businesses. The results may be useful for the development and targeting of voluntary forest policies and incentives as well as for the business development of organizations that provide services for the NIPF owners. Further, the results help recognizing protesters more easily and reducing protest behavior. To conclude, further studies on the objectives of protests in the context of permanent forest conservation program could be valuable. In addition, further examination on individual attribute level WTAs, could be useful to reveal detailed information of the program attributes of conduction of non-timber businesses and required management activities.
  • Vega Olivares, Cinthya (2023)
    This thesis examines the effects of Internationally Transferred Mitigation Outcomes (ITMOs) trade –embedded in the market mechanisms of Article 6 of the Paris Agreement– in assisting countries to achieve their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), incentivize increased mitigation ambition, and contribute to the long-term goals of the Paris Agreement. The study takes place within a context characterized by highly heterogeneous and non-Paris aligned NDCs, reflecting current global circumstances. The study employs a conceptual framework that integrates the Social Cost of Carbon (SCC), Marginal Abatement Cost (MAC) curves, and Marginal Benefit (MB) curves. This framework is used to analyze the impact of ITMO trading on the ambition of NDCs and the potential for global mitigation. The research reveals that the roles countries play in the ITMO market—whether as buyers or sellers—is significantly influenced by the varied nature of NDCs, each country’s unique domestic marginal abatement costs, and how their mitigation ambition aligns with the SCC. In addition, it was found that ITMO trading can potentially trigger additional mitigation and escalate target ambitions. However, the success of this mechanism heavily depends on certain conditions, restrictions, and alignment with Article 6 principles. For instance, allowing negative reoptimization could lead to countries manipulating their NDCs for short-term gain, thus undermining long-term climate goals. In contrast, scenarios permitting positive reoptimization and restricting trade to beyond-NDC targets can encourage higher ambition levels in line with the Paris Agreement goals. However, the study also highlighted significant challenges and limitations. The risk of overselling could undermine future mitigation efforts, and managing these complexities requires a thorough understanding of each country’s domestic mitigation context. Moreover, the varied nature of NDCs adds a layer of complexity to ITMO trading, necessitating a meticulous examination of each country’s future actions. The study recommends future research to devise methods for better aligning NDCs to facilitate more effective ITMO trading. This could involve an extensive exploration of potential safeguards for ITMO trade such as transfer limits, ambition coefficients, surplus targets, and taxes. Evaluating their effectiveness could offer valuable policy implications for ITMO trade regulation. Future studies should also delve into the uncertainties and dynamic intertemporal effects that impact ITMO trading, aspects not accounted for in the current conceptual framework. By broadening the focus to include imperfect markets and real-world uncertainties, we can strive towards more robust and effective climate policies.