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Maatalousympäristö on muuttunut voimakkaasti ihmistoiminnan vaikutuksesta. Viime vuosikymmeninä on havahduttu monien maatalousympäristönlajien taantumiseen ja uhanalaistumiseen maailmanlaajuisesti. Monimuotoisuus on vähentynyt ja tehostunut maataloustuotanto aiheuttaa monia uhkia peltolinnustolle. Vaikka monia syitä on tunnistettu peltolintujen ahdingon aiheuttajiksi, niin yksittäisten lajien vähenemisen taustalla olevia syitä ei usein tunneta riittävän tarkasti. Elinympäristöjen laadun heikkenemisen ja katoamisen, keinolannoitteiden käytön sekä kasvinsuojeluaineiden tiedetään vähentävän peltolintujen kantoja. Torjunta-aineiden haitallisuus myös muille kuin niiden varsinaisille kohde-eliöille on ollut tiedossa pitkään. Tehoaineista on kehitetty vähemmän myrkyllisiä, mutta niiden kertyminen ja leviäminen pelloilta elinympäristöön ja muihin eliöihin aiheuttaa ongelmia. 1990-luvulla tuhohyönteisten torjuntaan kehitettiin neonikotinoideja, joiden käyttö yleistyi nopeasti maailmanlaajuisesti. Suomessa neonikotinoideja on käytetty pääasiassa siementen käsittelyyn peittaamalla, eli siemenen pinnoittamiseen torjunta-aineella. Neonikotinoidipeittausta on käytetty öljykasveilla ja sokerijuurikkaalla. Ulkomaisissa tutkimuksissa on todettu näiden torjunta-aineiden aiheuttavan haittoja muillekin eliöryhmille kuin torjuttaville tuhohyönteisille. Tuloksia on saatu myös niiden yhteydestä peltolintujen taantumiseen. Suomessa asiaa ei ole tutkittu peltolinnuilla, mutta on todisteita, että neonikotinoideja löytyy linnuista. Linnut ovat hyviä indikaattorilajeja maatalousympäristössä tapahtuville muutoksille. Yksi voimakkaimmin taantuneista lajeista on avoimessa peltomaisemassa ruokaileva ja pesivä peltosirkku Emberiza hortulana. Sen uhanalaisuusluokitus Suomessa on nostettu äärimmäisen uhanalaiseksi, ja sen kanta on pienentynyt myös muualla Euroopassa. Lähitulevaisuudessa sen on ennustettu kuolevan Pohjois-Euroopassa sukupuuttoon, ellei tunnisteta kannankehitykseen vaikuttavia syitä. Tässä tutkimuksessa selvitetään öljykasvien ja sokerijuurikkaan peittauksessa käytettyjen neonikotinoidien yhteyttä peltosirkun kannankehitykseen. Tavoitteena on lisätä tietoa peltolintujen kantoihin vaikuttavista tekijöistä. Aineisto on kerätty peltolintulaskentojen yhteydessä kattavasti peltosirkun esiintymisalueilta eri puolilta Suomea vuosina 2000-2018. Peltosirkkureviirejä havaittiin yhteensä 4430, jotka jaettiin tutkimuksessa neljään maantieteelliseen alueeseen: 1) Pohjanmaa, 2) Etelä-Häme, 3) Lounais-Suomi ja 4) Uusimaa. Paikkatietoaineistossa muodostettiin 277 kpl peltosirkulle ominaista lauluryhmää eli osapopulaatiota, ja tutkittiin lajille tärkeiden elinympäristömuuttujien mahdollisia vaikutuksia lajin reviirimääriin. Elinympäristömuuttujia olivat pienpiirteisten maisemaelementtien määrä (tien-, ojan- ja joenpientareet), viljelykasviryhmien monimuotoisuus, rakennusten määrä, maantieteellinen alue, peltoalan osuus maisematasolla, keväällä kasvipeitteettömän peltoalan osuus sekä edelliskesän lämpötila ja sademäärä. Kiinnostuksen kohteena olivat erityisesti edellisenä kesänä viljeltyjen, neonikotinoideilla peitatuksi olettujen öljykasvien ja sokerijuurikkaan määrät. Näiden tekijöiden vaikutusta peltosirkun reviireihin selvitettiin R-ohjelmiston avulla sovittamalla aineistoon yhdeksän erilaista yleistettyä lineaarista sekamallia. Malleista valittiin neljä parasta, jotka keskiarvoistettiin luonnollisen keskiarvon menetelmällä. Peltosirkun reviirien määrää selittäviksi tekijöiksi saatiin viljelyalan osuus maisemassa, maantieteellinen alue, jokien pituus, lämpötila, vuosi sekä neonikotinoideilla peitattujen kasvien osuus. Mallilla laskettiin ennusteet kolmella eri peitattujen kasvien osuuksilla (matala, keskimääräinen tai korkea) jokaiselle neljälle osa-alueelle. Peitattujen kasvien (öljykasvit ja sokerijuurikas) osuudella ja peltosirkun reviirien määrällä on heikko negatiivinen korrelaatio jokaisella maantieteellisellä osa-alueella. Alueiden reviirimäärät muuttuivat synkronisesti eri peittaustasoilla. Tämän tutkielman tulosten perusteella öljykasvien ja sokerijuurikkaan viljelyllä on heikko yhteys peltosirkun reviirimääriin. Aineiston perusteella ei voi aukottomasti todeta, että syynä olisivat yksinomaan neonikotinoidit. Tiedetään, että ne aiheuttavat peltosirkun kaltaisille lajeille oireita, jotka voisivat selittää huonoa poikastuottoa, tai että yksilöt eivät selviä muuttomatkaltaan. Tulos nostaa esiin saman tärkeän asian, joka on todettu aiemminkin peltosirkun ja monen muun taantuvan lajin kohdalla. Emme tunne lajin käyttäytymistä ja populaatiobiologiaa riittävän hyvin, jotta voisimme nopeilla toimenpiteillä maatalousympäristössä kääntää kannankehityksen suunnan. Peltosirkun pesimämenestykseen liittyviä syitä tulisi tutkia lisää. Torjunta-ainejäämien tutkiminen voisi selittää peltosirkun kohdalla huonoa pesimätulosta. Tällaiselle tutkimukselle olisi tilausta laajemminkin, sillä tietoa kasvinsuojeluaineiden yhteisvaikutuksesta maatalousympäristön eliölajeihin ei ole.

In my Master's Thesis I discuss consumption from the perspective of ecological and social sustainability. The environmental space concept is the framework for this study. The environmental space concept was developed in the beginning of the 1990's. It is a space that can be defined with different indicators and within which it is possible to live a decent and socially acceptable life and at the same time consume natural resources in a sustainable way. In this research the upper limit of environmental space is defined as the sustainable level of natural resource use calculated as material footprint and the lower limit as decent minimum reference budgets that illustrate the level of consumption allowing a household to fulfil all basic needs and to participate in society. The material of the study was collected by questionnaires and interviews on the consumption and lifestyle of the participating households. The households interviewed were all single and living on disability pension or basic unemployment allowance. The natural resource consumption of the households was calculated as material footprint. The material footprint is based on the MIPS concept (Material Input per Service Unit) that considers the whole life cycle of products and activities. The participants were also asked to report their income and consumption expenditures. We were also discussing about consumption, the social pressure to consume and use of natural resources. The results show that the low-income households have an average material footprint exceeding the ecologically sustainable level (18 100 kg per year), although the material footprint is lower than average (40 500 kg per year). They also indicate that a sustainable level of resource use cannot be achieved solely by individual choices but the society must improve the changes in the supply of products, services and infrastructure, enabling households to consume in a more sustainable way. The income level of the households remains below the level of the decent minimum reference budgets. The participating households experienced poverty as lack of possibility to consume and recognized the prevailing social pressure to consume. Consuming was characterized by pursuit of status and social comparison between people. The change in prevailing consumer culture is an essential part on the way towards sustainable society, because the amount of consumption grows as long as welfare is measured through consumption. The connection between consumption and natural resource use remained unclear to many of the households and attitudes towards nature alternated between the households. Those households that had been low-income for their whole life, hadn't thought about the sufficiency of natural resources. Their more ecological way of living than average is rather compulsory than their own choice. The rise in their income level would lead to increasing consumption, as households would want to raise their standard of living by moving to a bigger house and travelling. When we notice the limits of the Planet, we should pay more attention to the upper limit of the environmental space to those, who consume the most.

Vaatetusala on tärkeä hyvinvointia tuottava teollisuudenala. Se on myös hyvin kuormittava ympäristölle. Kiihtyvä kulutus ja vaaralliset työolot ovat osa alan haastetta. Kiertotaloudesta on kaavailtu näihin ongelmiin ratkaisua. Sen tavoitteena on korvata vaatteiden lineaarinen tuotantomalli luonnon kiertokulkuun perustuvalla mallilla sekä mahdollistaa talouskasvun ja luonnonvarojen kulutuksen irtikytkentä lisäämällä samalla hyvinvointia. Kiertotalousprojektia leimaavat heikkoa kestävyyttä peilaavat teknis-taloudelliset ratkaisut eivät yksinään mahdollista riittävää muutosta vaan kulutuskulttuurin haastaminen on välttämätöntä. Tässä tutkielmassa on selvitetty käytäntöteorian keinoin, millaisia kiertotalouteen liittyviä käytäntöjä suomalaisissa pienissä vastuullisissa vaatetusalan yrityksissä toteutetaan. Aineistosta havaittiin kahdeksan eri käytäntöä, jotka liittyivät liiketoiminnan ja tuotannon eri osiin sekä erilaisiin kiertotalouspalveluihin. Kertotalous näyttäytyi vaatetusalalla yritysten näkökulmasta sekä inspiroivana mahdollisuutena että vakavana uhkana yritystoiminnalle. Talouskasvun ja kulutuksen irtikytkennän dilemma oli osoittautunut haastavaksi ratkaista, etenkin innovatiivisen liiketoimintaosaamisen ollessa toistaiseksi yrityksissä puutteellista. Tutkimuskirjallisuuden havaintoja mukaillen kiertotalousliiketoiminta on hyvin haastavaa ja edellyttää vaatetusalalla vallitsevien normien kyseenalaistamista, joka on pienille yrityksille lähes mahdotonta yksin. Muutos voisi mahdollistua, mikäli kuluttajat nousisivat yritysten aktiivisiksi kanssatoimijoiksi, julkisen sektorin tukiessa toimintaa. Toistaiseksi vaatetusala kuitenkin noudattaa perinteistä, lineaarista tuotantomallia ja kiertotalousprojekti sekä sen tavoittelema laajamittainen yhteiskunnallinen muutos on jäämässä utopistiseksi visioksi.

Maisterin tutkielma käsittelee uupumuksen yhteyttä oppimisen lähestymistapoihin ja opintomenestykseen. Tutkimus-kohteena ovat bio- ja ympäristötieteellisen tiedekunnan ensimmäisen vuoden opiskelijat vuonna 2018. Tutkimuksen tarkoituksena on hahmottaa uupumuksen, opintomenestyksen ja oppimisen lähestymistapojen välisiä yhteyksiä, sekä muodostaa uupumusprofiileita joiden avulla havaitaan minkälaisia opiskelijoiden joukkoja tiedekunnassamme on. Aineisto on kerätty HowULearn palautejärjestelmän avulla ja tilastolliset testit on tehty SPSS ohjelmalla. Tutkimuksen tuloksena suunnitelmallisella opiskelulla on yhteys hyvään opintomenestykseen, mutta syväsuuntautuneel-la oppimisen lähestymistavalla ei ollut merkitsevää yhteyttä parempaan opintomenestykseen. Pintasuuntautunut op-pimisen lähestymistapa on yhteydessä uupuneisuuteen. Uupumusprofiilit (jotka on toteutettu ANOVA: lla) jakavat vastaajat neljään eri ryhmään. Uupumusprofiilit ovat aiemman tutkimuksen kanssa samankaltaisia, mutta uupuneisuus on bio- ja ympäristötieteellisessä tiedekunnassa yleisempää muihin oppilaitoksiin verrattuna. Uupumusprofiilit eroavat merkitsevästi toisistaan oppimisen lähestymistapojen suhteen. Oppimisympäristö liittyy uupuneisuuteen, sekä oppimisen lähestymistapoihin. Yliopistot, lukiot ja peruskoulut voivat pyrkiä lisäämään opiskelijoiden hyvinvointia suuntaamalla oppimisen lähestymistapoja kohti suunnitelmallisempaa ja syvällisempää oppimista. Pedagogista tutkimusta oppimisen lähestymistapoihin vaikuttamisesta tulisi kuitenkin ensin tehdä enemmän, jotta syy-seuraussuhteet ymmärretään paremmin.

Bacteraemia, the presence of bacteria in the bloodstream, may lead to severe and costly health issues. Sepsis, a serious complication of bacteraemia, is one of the top causes of mortality globally. Early and specific diagnostics as well as fast acting are essential in successful treatment. However, current diagnosis relies mainly on time-consuming blood culturing and clinical symptoms, which are unspecific for the causative agent. With the advanced technology and decreasing cost, state-of-art sequencing-based (Next generation sequencing) methods provide a new way to investigate the bacteria present. Metagenomics, which means sequencing and studying all DNA extracted from a microbial community sample, is widely used, but it only describes the genetic potential of a community and does not differentiate live from dead microbes. Metatranscriptomics, in which essentially all RNA from a sample is sequenced, provides information about expression and activity together with identification of viable bacteria, However, the high amounts of host cells and host RNA complicate the detection of bacterial transcripts from complex host-microbe samples. In this thesis, I investigated solutions for the efficient isolation and enrichment of bacterial RNA from whole blood to be used in sequencing and metatranscriptomics analysis. Firstly, I tested the capability of bacterial cell lysis of two commercial blood sampling tubes with Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus epidermidis suspensions. Both tubes, Tempus and RNAgard, were able to lyse gram-negative E. coli cells and good-quality RNA was extracted in measurable quantities with their respective RNA extraction methods. With Tempus tubes the RNA yield was clearly higher. With gram-positive S. epidermidis, RNA quantities from both extractions were below the measurement limits indicating insufficient lysis and need for further optimization. Secondly, I investigated the depletion of polyadenylated (poly-A) transcripts in order to reduce the host transcripts and thus to enrich the bacterial transcripts prior to costly sequencing step. I evaluated the performance of a previously designed in-house protocol, based on the capture of poly-A -transcripts with oligo-dT -beads, and tested different parameters to see whether the depletion efficiency could be enhanced. Most significantly, the amount of oligo-dT -bead suspension was reduced to half from the original protocol. In-house protocols were also compared to a commercial solution, which they clearly outperformed. Depletion performances were tested with a RT-qPCR and dot blot assay, which I designed along this thesis work. Finally, to make the poly-A depletion better suited for blood samples infested with globin transcripts (representing up to 80% of all poly-A transcripts extracted from whole blood), I tested and successfully pipelined the leading commercial method for depleting globin transcripts with the in-house poly-A depletion protocol. The optimized sample preparation protocol provides a platform for further bloodstream infection and sepsis studies. Next steps of the process, such as sequencing and testing with clinical samples, are already ongoing with promising preliminary results. In the future, the metatranscriptomics approach can be utilized in fast and specific identification of the pathogens and their antibiotic susceptibilities. In addition, infection mechanisms and host-pathogen interactions may be studied possibly providing novel insights for sepsis diagnostics and treatment.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a degenerative brain disorder that exhibits deterioration as one gets older. Although much remains to be learned about the pathophysiology of AD, there is strong evidence links amyloid beta (Aβ) plaques, which are responsible for cognitive impairment, to GABAergic interneurons. Model systems are of prime importance for adequately studying the pathophysiology of this disorder; however, existing in vitro models have limitations in producing patient-specific cells. The development of induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology has provided a novel opportunity for the effective production of disease-relevant cell types while preserving the molecular traits of the patient. In this thesis, the differentiation protocol established by Nicholas et al. (2013) was used to promote the development of interneurons derived from iPSCs. To enhance the efficiency of differentiation, the protocol was modified with the use of small molecules combined in different ways. The end result of the differentiation was characterized using immunocytochemistry (ICC) and reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). The combination of molecules that produced greater efficiency in differentiation was selected, and the optimized protocol was carried out with iPSCs derived from an AD patient harbouring the APP Swedish mutation. The differentiation of cortical interneurons, demonstrated by the expression of pan-neuronal and specific GABAergic neuronal markers, signifies the successful generation of differentiated interneurons in the context of AD. AD iPSCs upregulated several markers related to AD pathology, such as APP and BACE1. However, the cell lines tolerated the small molecules differently, and thus, the protocol needs more optimization in the future. In summary, iPSC-based differentiation protocols are capable of producing disease-specific cell types that would be helpful in developing accurate AD models for revealing the mechanisms of Aβ pathology.

Previous studies have shown that involving citizens, especially young people, in environmental decision making, increases the ability to participate in environmental action (e.g. Riemer et al. 2014, Paloniemi and Koskinen 2005). There have been various school and after school projects to promote the engagement of young people in societal environmental action. Many youth engagement projects in the third sector have succeeded in achieving positive results in promoting environmental citizenship. This thesis evaluates the involvement of young people and young adults in environmental action at WWF Finland. The theoretical framework of this thesis is based on the model by Paloniemi and Koskinen (2005) of environmental policy action as a social learning process. According to the model, positive experiences of involvement can strengthen environmental action competence and encourage participants to take environmentally responsible action. In the spiral model, the context is taken into account in the results. The data for this thesis is from a survey of 30 young people at WWF, who took part in the project. The survey mapped the effects of the project on the participants' self-empowerment, social empowerment, and environmental citizenship. It also examined skills in environmental action, and the effects of the context on the results. These results were processed using a mix of qualitative content analysis and statistical analysis methods. In the content analysis, the open-question-answers were themed. The differences between numerical answers of those who suspended the project, and those who were involved until the end were compared, for example using a T-test. In addition, narrative inquiry was developed based on the answers to describe comprehensive profile of respondents. There were no statistically significant differences between those who discontinued the project and those who participated until the end. However, the content analysis of the study provided evidence that the activities succeeded to empower participants and strengthen their environmental citizenship and environmental action competence. According to the results, 26 out of 30 respondents received more information about environmental problems, and 24 received information about their own opportunities on environmentally responsible action. Almost everyone also learned other skills that support environmental citizenship. The project had a positive effect on self-empowerment and social empowerment for 21 respondents. More than half of the respondents also reported an increase in societal engagement, or encouragement to work in the field of environmental or sustainable development. The results of this thesis conclude that the context of WWF’s project was overall successful, as the desired results were achieved. Motivating and engaging factors that contributed to the goals of the operation were also identified. The results of the thesis are in line with previous research, which indicates that environmental participation in the third sector plays an important role in promoting environmental citizenship. However, more long-term research on the topic is needed, as well as research with different control groups.

Tiivistelmä – Referat – Abstract OCRL1 is a phosphatase that cleaves phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PI4,5P) to phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate (PI4P). ORP4 is a lipid binding/transport protein implicated in G-protein coupled signaling, cellular calcium homeostasis, proliferation and viability. OCRL1 and ORP4 are found in the endoplasmic reticulum and membrane contact sites throughout the endosomal system and the Golgi complex. OCRL1 is also present in the plasma membrane and vesicular structures. ORP4 has high affinity for binding sterols through the OSBP related domain (ORD). ORP4 also interacts with vimentin intermediate filaments via the ORD and influences the localization and organization of vimentin. The membrane lipid phosphatidylinositol (PI) can be phosphorylated either singly or in combination at three different positions on its inositol ring (D-3, D-4, and D-5)—yielding 8 possible phosphoinositides; the interconversion between the species is regulated by kinases and phosphatases that either add or remove phosphate groups from the various positions on the ring. Phosphoinositide metabolism is heavily involved in signal transduction pathways and cytoskeletal organization. Interestingly, it has also been found to be spatially regulated with distinct phosphoinositides being enriched in particular membrane compartments. BiFC assays can provide an important tool for visualizing protein-protein interactions. Not only is BiFC able to determine protein-protein proximity but it is also able to localize the interaction with regard to compartment membranes and structures. This study examined the interaction of ORP4 with OCRL1 by using BiFC analysis. We were able to determine that the protein pair seems to be in close proximity in the endoplasmic reticulum near the Golgi. Interaction only took place when the OCRL1 was tagged with VB at the C-terminal.

The sense of hearing is dependent on the sensory cells of the cochlea: inner and outer hair cells. The critical functional structure of these cells is the stereocilia bundle, the mechanotransduction (MET) organelle. The outer hair cells (OHCs) are highly vulnerable to environmental assaults, the effects of aging, and gene mutations. This vulnerability is thought to be mediated by challenges in maintaining intracellular calcium homeostasis. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress is a form of cellular stress that was previously shown to cause hair cell impairment. A possibility is that this impairment is mediated by perturbations in calcium homeostasis. In this thesis, the aim was to find out how the OHC calcium homeostasis is affected by specific ER stress-inducing mutations and age in mouse models exhibiting progressive hearing loss. I studied OHC calcium homeostasis in Manf conditional knock-out (cKO) mice under C57BL/6 (B6) strain in which ER homeostasis-promoting protein MANF (Mesencephalic Astrocyte-derived Neurotrophic Factor) is depleted in cochlear hair cells. Previous studies have shown that these mice develop progressive hearing loss that includes OHC loss and prominent stereocilia pathology, stereocilia fusion. By itself, the B6 mouse strain is a model of age-related hearing loss due to a Cdh23 missense mutation that is known to cause progressive hearing loss and, according to earlier evidence, may be a source of ER stress. I studied B6 mice at 6–9 months of age and Manf cKO mice at 2 months of age to comparatively examine changes to OHC calcium homeostasis that may correlate with the changes in the stereocilia bundle morphology and with hearing loss. I studied hearing function by auditory brainstem recordings in vivo. I estimated the functionality of MET channels in OHCs by FM1-43 uptake. I used immunofluorescence microscopy to study subcellular expression of key calcium-buffering and calcium-extrusion proteins in OHCs. I used a novel super-resolution imaging technique, expansion microscopy (ExM), to study stereocilia bundle morphology. OHCs of Manf cKO mice showed changes in calcium homeostasis in all the studied aspects: (1) FM1-43 uptake through MET channels was reduced, (2) the expression of the calcium extrusion pump PMCA2 and its obligate partner, the cell adhesion protein neuroplastin, was decreased, (3) and the expression of calcium-buffering protein oncomodulin was increased. All this data indicated OHC calcium dyshomeostasis. These molecular changes were consistent with the hair bundle pathology—stereocilia fusion—revealed by phalloidin staining of the actin-rich core of the stereocilia followed by ExM imaging. OHCs of 6–9-month-old B6 mice exhibited reduced FM1-43 uptake, yet not to the extent seen in cKO mice, and there were no changes in PMCA2 and neuroplastin expression and no prominent stereocilia fusion. Together, I show in this study that OHC hair bundle dysmorphology is linked with changes in calcium homeostasis in the mouse model of ER stress-induced hearing loss. This is consistent with the fact that calcium dyshomeostasis is an integral part of cellular ER stress. An intriguing, yet unanswered question is whether these changes in stereocilia bundle physiology could actually be the trigger for the death of these sensory cells.

The developing human hindbrain and its role in neuronal pathogenesis have been relatively difficult to study for ethical reasons. By using the dual-SMAD inhibition and WNT signalling induction, a new method to culture brain organoids to resemble the human hindbrain has recently been established. In this study the new method has been used to detect the developing hindbrain’s response to flaviviral infection. Model virus used in this study is the Zika virus (ZIKV) which is known to alter the development of central nervous system and cause microcephalia. Pathogenic activity of the virus is measured by detecting the morphology of the organoids during infection as well as screening the organoids activation against oxidative stress, in a form of KEAP1/Nrf2-ARE pathway activation. Three different clones of ZIKV, which differ from each other by one amino acid in their non-structural protein 1 (NS1) gene, were used in the infections as well as two different time points of development. Controversially to previous findings on ZIKV infections to brain organoids, our findings show that developing hindbrain-like organoids do not change in shape or size during ZIKV infection. There are no differences in the lack of morphological changes between one-month olds or two months old organoids or between the different ZIKV clone infected organoids. The activation of the KEAP1/Nrf2-ARE pathway was measured by screening the two final products of the pathway, Nqo1 and HO-1. By screening the mRNA levels of these two genes, it showed that different ZIKV clones affect the activation of the KEAP1/Nrf2-ARE pathway in different levels at different times of development. Also, the expression of the same gene can be altered by the age of the organoids. Additionally, the expression of the two genes were different from each other at given time points and in response to the different clones. These findings suggest that the different isoforms of NS1 of ZIKV may alter the developing hindbrain’s response to oxidative stress. Findings also show that the time of the infection can additionally play a critical role to the ZIKV infection. The altered response to oxidative stress may contribute to microcephaly: the oxidation homeostasis of the developing hindbrain is modified, and apoptotic cell death can take place.