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Growth differentiation factor 15 (GDF15), a member of TGF-β super family is a soluble cytokine that is associated with different pathological conditions including cancer, cardiac and renal failure and obesity. Its high serum levels are linked with symptoms like cachexia/anorexia in cancer patients and can be used as a marker for these diseases. Its crucial role in weight regulation and energy homeostasis has been demonstrated by treating obese mice with GDF15, which results in weight lose along with improved glucose metabolism and increased insulin tolerance. It is now known that GDF15 exerts its metabolic effect by binding to a GDNF receptor -α-Like (GFRAL) receptor along with co-receptor RET. Interestingly, these two receptors co-localize only in the brain stem area of mice and humans indicating involvement of a neuronal circuit in GDF15 mediated effects. Despite its implications in major health disorders, little is known about the interaction of GDF15 with its receptors and how this interaction in turn modulates different cellular signalling and functions. The aim of the thesis was to study the mechanism and factors involved in endocytosis of GDF15. I employed high content imaging and flow cytometry techniques to visualize and analyse the internalization of ligand-receptor complex and investigate the role of actin, dynamin and phosphoinositide 3 kinase in the process. The results suggest that similar to the internalization of other cellular growth factors, the uptake of GDF15 is affected by disruption of the actin cytoskeleton. The role of dynamin is still unclear. I also discovered that the internalization of GDF15 was inefficient even in cells that expressed the receptor GFRAL, with large cell-to-cell variation. By following the intracellular localization of the receptor GFRAL, my results revealed that the receptor GFRAL is not efficiently exported to the plasma membrane and most of the protein is retained in the Golgi compartment of cells. This phenomenon was stronger in murine fibroblast cells, where the receptor was almost exclusively trapped in the secretory compartment, explaining why the uptake of the ligand GDF15 is so inefficient in these cells. The system developed during this project will now be used to analyse different factors involved in the uptake of GDF15 and eventually uncover the possible endocytic pathway. Moreover, the Golgi retention of the receptor opens up new questions to investigate like whether the physiological function of GDF15 is regulated by receptor export signals. This will help deciphering the complex and mysterious interaction of GDF15 with its receptor GFRAL.

Evolving societies force universities to transform from the producers of new information sat in their ivory towers towards the role of entrepreneurial universities. The theme of entrepreneurial universities is widely studied internationally, but studies concerning the University of Helsinki (UH) are scarce. The aim of this thesis is to map the current UH bioentrepreneurship ecosystem and the services it provides. The services were mapped and assessed based on how they match the needs of academic bioentrepreneurs. Measures are also suggested on how to develop the ecosystem. This thesis links strongly to the previous literature on entrepreneurial universities and academic entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurial university as a term encompasses an organisation, which strongly supports and encompasses entrepreneurial action in its different functions. Strong technology transfer and commercialization of research via licensing and spinout company formation, is usually linked to entrepreneurial universities. University spinouts are strongly linked to academic entrepreneurship. In spinouts research results and academic tacit knowledge are transformed into enterprises to produce value. The thesis was conducted as a qualitative case study. For the study UH affiliated entities offering entrepreneurship services and bioentrepreneurs originating from within the university were interviewed. The data was analysed with content analysis methods. The results show that UH bioentrepreneurship ecosystem is just in the beginning with multiple useful services but also with some significant flaws. The most significant obstacles preventing the growth of the ecosystem are the university’s negative culture towards entrepreneurship, non-existent communication about the subject and the absence of relevant supportive networks for academic entrepreneurs. Via changing these the critical mass to enable sustainable ecosystem can be achieved.

The objective of this study is twofold: Firstly, to investigate how men and women living in Tanala villages in the Ranomafana National Park buffer zone differ in their natural resource use and livelihood. Secondly, based on this information, the intention is to find out how the establishment of the park has influenced people living in the buffer zone from the gender point of view. The data have been gathered mainly by using semi-structured interviews. Group interviews and individual interviews were carried out in three buffer zone villages. In addition, members of the park personnel were interviewed, observations were made during the visits to the villages and documents related to the planning and the administration of the park were investigated. The data were analysed using qualitative content analysis. It seems that Tanala women and men relate to their environment in a rather similar way and that they have quite equal rights considering the use and the control of natural resources. Probably this is the reason why the management of the Ranomafana National Park has practically not taken gender issues into account in the planning of the park or in administering activities related to it. Both Tanala men and women can own and inherit land, and in most cases they also exert full control over it. Similarly, women and men seem to control their own labour as well as the produce of their work. There is a strong gendered division of labour in Tanala villages, based on the conception of men doing the hard and difficult work and women s tasks being easy. This idea does not appear to correspond with reality, but it rather seems to be a social construction highlighting the importance of men s work at the expense of women s tasks. At the household level, men and women have equal say considering environmental resources management as well as other kinds of issues, but at the community level women are significantly less active than men in decision making. Since the park management has not paid any special attention to this, women s voices and their interests have not been heard as much as those of men in park related meetings. In consequence, there have been no development projects focused on women s cultivation activities, for example. The establishment of the park has also had another important gendered impact. Since the creation of the park local people have been forbidden to enter the park forest. In practise this ban has mostly affected women, and the forest has become a men s space considering both the access to it and it s resources as well as the feeling of authority. As a conclusion it can be stated that for achieving socially just nature conservation, it is important to take gender issues into consideration even if gender relations seem to be quite equal. In Ranomafana area the situation could be improved, for example, by listening more carefully to women s interests and needs.

The Great Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo) is among the most recent additions to the Finnish avifauna: the current breeding population dates back to 1996. Historical and archeological data clearly demonstrate that the 20th century breeding range expansion of the species in the Baltic region is a re-colonisation event. The two subspecies of Cormorant in Europe are the nominate subspecies P. carbo carbo and the continental subspecies P. c. sinensis. The Cormorants currently breeding in Finland belong to the subspecies sinensis. P. c. carbo lives on the coasts of the North Sea and North Atlantic and visit Finland only during migration. However, osteological evidence suggests that carbo was prevalent subspecies in the Baltic area during prehistoric times, only to disappear in the Late Middle Age (by circa 1500 AD). The subspecies of the Cormorant differ in average size and weight, the details of the plumage and the angle of the gular pouch. P. c. carbo is on average larger than sinensis. However, males are larger than females in both subspecies. The subspecies differ in their ecological characteristics, e.g. preferred prey, breeding sites and migratory behaviour. However, only bones remain from the prehistoric Baltic Cormorants and therefore, soft tissues or behavioural characteristics cannot be used for their identification. The known osteological measurements of the subspecies overlap, and it has previously been possible to distinguish only the two extremes, large P. c. carbo males and small P. c. sinensis females. Here, I looked into features that would enable distinguishing of the skeletons of all the specimens of both subspecies. The primary material of my Master’s thesis consists of 65 specimens representing birds of both subspecies and sexes. The material has been collected from the Baltic basin and the western Gulf of Bothnia in Sweden and the Åland islands in Finland. In addition, I examined 11 specimens of the subspecies carbo from the collections of the Swedish Museum of Natural History (Naturhistoriska riksmuseet). I focused on the most diagnostic elements of the skeleton: skull, sternum and the large bones of the limbs. Moreover, I examined bones that may be associated with ecological differences between the subspecies, such as the sclerotic ring, the os nuchale, and the length of the distalmost phalanx bone of the opposable hallux toe. I wanted to find out if there are osteological differences between the males and females or the two subspecies. The statistical method used for testing the hypotheses and examining subspecific averages was the analysis of variance (ANOVA). The measurements were also analysed with Principal Component Analysis to investigate the proportional differences. The bones of the two subspecies differed in particular in the length of the forearm bones. Reliable discriminating features also included the depth of the bill and the measurements of leg bones. These are subspecific adaptations to their preferred habitats, prey, nesting sites and migratory behaviour. The relatively short wings of P. c. carbo make it an excellent diver, but a less efficient flyer. This subspecies migrates shorter distances, and is able to overwinter relatively far up in the north. In contrast, P. c. sinensis is able to fly with greater speed and efficiency during migration to avoid adverse conditions. The depth of the bill is an important factor determining the snapping power of the bill, which makes P. c. carbo better suited for handling big or powerful prey. The contemporary Baltic Sea is warmer and less marine than during earlier periods. The current brackish environment seems to favor the subspecies sinensis over carbo, although human persecution may also have had an effect on the previous demise of subspecies carbo. My results support the view that the subspecies of the Great Cormorant are clearly distinct morphologically. My result also suggest that skeletal research is an underutilised method in bird taxonomy, and studying the proportions of bones helps to perceive ecological and biological differences between bird subspecies.

Insects (Insecta) are the most species-rich class of organisms on earth. Due to their vast biodiversity, insects are found in almost every environment. However, approximately 90 % of the over 1 000 000 insect species described are terrestrial. The ocean covers over 70 % of the earths surface, but less than 2 000 marine insect species are known. The purpose of this thesis is to give the reader a comprehensive understanding of marine insect biodiversity and what has caused its sparceness in the seas. Such a multi-faceted review of the topic has not previously been written. The first aim of this review is to catalogue all insect taxons containing marine species, and to examine the habitat choices and ecology of these species. For this purpose, marine insect species have been researched using the World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS) and reference literature, as well as reviews and other articles. Based mostly on WoRMS, the number of marine insect species is determined to be 1 318, divided between 10 insect orders. In addition, seven insect orders are noted to include an unknown number of marine species. As well as examining marine insect biodiversity order-by-order, this work considers the littoral and pelagic habitats in which marine insects live, and the adaptations that are required of insects living in these environments. The second aim of this review is to investigate the lack of insects in marine environments as a phenomenon. The groundwork is laid at the beginning of the review with an examination of why and how insects have diversified so successfully. Later on, possible factors to prevent a similarily successful diversification in marine environments are presented, such as issues with osmoregulation and breathing systems, the typical features of insect reproduction and life cycles, and the fact that transitions between physically contrasting habitats are rare. Pertaining to this the evolutionary history of insects, which has produced the aforementioned features impeding radiation to the seas is also explored. Ultimately insect species in the oceans are few, because insects are a terrestrial evolutionary branch of Pancrustacea. Even though marine habits are uncommon among insects, they are not unheard of. Marine species have emerged in several insect clades and these species have adapted to their environment in numerous ways. For the purposes of further analyses and research on the radiation and biodiversity of marine insects, further surveying of the species and their habits and adaptations is recommended. This work will hopefully offer a point of reference for more detailed future studies and reviews of marine insect biodiversity and the factors that have led to the near-exclusion of insects from the seas.

Breast cancer remains as the leading cause of cancer deaths among women. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is one of the most aggressive breast cancer subtypes and lacks targetable receptors, consequently, cannot be treated with current hormone of anti-HER2 targeting therapies. Thus, there is a need for discovering novel and well-tolerated therapies. MYC is a proto-oncogene and a transcription factor, that is frequently amplified and overexpressed in breast cancers. MYC is involved in many cellular processes promoting cell proliferation, however, overexpression of MYC can also sensitize cells to replicative stress and apoptotic cell death. In our previous studies we have shown that pharmacological activation of AMPK, a cellular energy sensor, synergises with Bcl-2 family inhibitors, such as navitoclax and venetoclax, and activates MYC-dependent apoptosis in breast cancer cell lines, transgenic mouse models of MYC-dependent mammary tumorigenesis and in MYC-high patient-derived explant cultures (PDECs). In subsequent study we observed, that indirect AMPK activator metformin alone inhibited tumor growth in vivo, but did not induce apoptosis in mouse tumors or in PDECs. Metformin, a type II diabetes mellitus drug, has shown anti-cancer effects in some population studies and is under investigation for a cancer therapies, however the whole mechanism of action in cancer is still not well-known. To elucidate metformin’s effects on MYC overexpressing triple-negative breast cancer cells, I will present, that metformin has anti-proliferative effects and show that long term metformin treatment induces senescence biomarkers in MYC-high TNBC breast cancer cell lines. To study metformin's short and long-term anti-proliferative activity, cell proliferation during and after drug treatment was investigated, which showed, that metformin’s effects do not seem to persist long after drug withdrawal. In conclusion, the key observation of this thesis was, that metformin does inhibit the proliferation of MYC overexpressing cancer cells and presents a senescence phenotype that possibly can be exploited to find new targeted therapies for triple-negative breast cancer patients.

Animal coloration is as striking as it is diverse; however, the transcriptional basis of coloration is not deeply understood. Cichlid fishes are a tractable system for studying coloration as they exhibit a wide range of phenotypic diversity while remaining genetically similar. This facilitates the study of genotype-phenotype correlations and the identification of causative genes. RNA sequencing is a powerful approach to investigate the genes which characterize chromatophores. However, RNA-seq results can be plagued by the high abundance of rRNA in cells. This thesis aims to investigate differential gene expression between differently pigmented regions as well as explore the effects of tissue treatments and rRNA depletion on gene expression. Gene sets acquired with polyA selection, riboPOOL probes optimized for zebrafish, and zebrafish probes complemented with newly designed riboPOOL cichlid probes were compared to assess the functionality of these different rRNA depletion strategies. The use of zebrafish probes complemented with newly designed cichlid probes captured the greatest diversity of genes, many transcripts of which were missing from the other gene sets. Furthermore, as experiments such as scRNA-seq rely on a dissociation step, the effect of dissociation on gene expression was examined and found to promote the expression of stress response genes. The results of this upstream optimization were applied in the analysis of differential gene expression between the vertical stripes of the cichlid Pseudotropheus demasoni to better understand the molecular basis of vertical striping in fish. The dark stripes exhibited upregulation of melanic marker genes and the light, iridescent stripes showed an increase in iridophore marker gene expression. These findings were corroborated with cell count data from FACS to link transcriptional profiles and cell type quantifications. Overall, the study provides insight into the transcriptional basis of coloration in cichlid fishes and underscores the importance of optimizing methods drawing meaningful conclusions.

Finnish forests have a major impact on climate change at a national level, as approximately 86 % of Finland's surface area is forest and forests are a significant carbon sink. Continuous cover forestry is better from the point of view of carbon sequestration than even-age forestry. The Finnish Forest Act was reformed in 2014. Forest professionals and forest owners have had time to adapt to the new Act, to consider the use of alternative methods or, possibly, to take these methods into practice. Forest professionals have a clear position of power through information and communication to forest owners and the creation of a prevailing atmosphere of attitudes. Examination of the attitudes and the values of forest professionals are important as their attitudes and values have an impact on the recommendation of forest management methods. The purpose of this study was to examine how familiar continuous cover forestry was to forest professionals and forest owners as well as their perceptions of it. In addition, the values of forest professionals and how different factors influence their perceptions of continuous cover forestry were examined. The data used in this research was from a survey conducted in 2017. According to the results, forest professionals and forest owners are quite familiar with continuous cover forestry. The forest professionals’ perceptions of it were more negative compared to the forest owners’ perceptions. Gender and educational background were factors that were found to impact the attitudes of the forest professionals. Their perceptions of continuous cover forestry also affected the percentage of continuous cover forestry recommended by them. Forest professionals valued the sales proceeds of wood the most and the carbon sequestration of forests the least.

Liito-oravaa (Pteromys volans) esiintyy EU:n alueella ainoastaan Virossa ja Suomessa. Lajin kanta heikkenee jatkuvasti metsätaloustoimien vuoksi. Liito-orava kuuluu EU:n luontodirektiivin suojaamiin lajeihin ja sen lisääntymis- ja levähdyspaikkojen hävittäminen on kielletty luonnonsuojelulailla. Liito-oravaa on suojeltu vuosina 2004 2016 Elinkeino-, liikenne- ja ympäristökeskuksen (ELY) toteuttamin rajausmenettelyin, jotka vuonna 2016 poistettiin käytöstä. Metsätoimijoiden vastuu liito-oravan suojelusta on kasvanut. Tässä työssä tutkin metsänomistajien asenteita liito-oravaa, sen suojelua sekä suojeluviranomaisia kohtaan. Olin kiinnostunut lainsäädännöllisen velvoittavan suojelun vaikutuksesta metsänomistajien asenteisiin suojeltavaa lajia kohtaan. Lisäksi halusin selvittää, millaiset taustatekijät voivat vaikuttaa asenteisiin. Taustateorioina käytin sosiaalipsykologian asenneteorioita, joiden pohjalta uskoin vastaajien asenteissa näkyvän joko kielteistä tai myönteistä suhtautumista liito-oravan suojeluun. Kielteinen suhtautuminen osoittaisi reaktanssia eli psykologista ilmiötä, jossa käskeminen aiheuttaa halun rikkoa annettua käskyä, jotta oma valinnanvapaus säilytetään. Myönteinen suhtautuminen kertoisi dissonanssi-ilmiöstä eli psykologisesta ilmiöstä, jossa käyttäytymistä ei voi lainsäädännön takia muuttaa ja siksi muutetaan asenne lakia myötäileväksi. Aiempien sääntöjen noudattamista käsitelleiden asennetutkimusten perusteella molempia ilmiöitä tulisi esiintyä vastaajien joukossa. Toteutin tutkimuksen puhelimitse tapahtuvan haastattelun avulla. Metsänomistajat oli jaettu kolmeen ryhmään heidän liito-oravakokemuksensa perusteella. Kontrolliryhmällä ei ollut ollenkaan omakohtaisia liito-oravakokemuksia. Kahdella muulla ryhmällä oli joko ELY-keskuksen antama liito-oravapäätös ilman hakkuurajoituksia, tai ELY-keskuksen määrittämä liito-oravapäätös hakkuurajoituksineen. Kokemuksen merkitystä analysoin mm. lineaarisen regressioanalyysin avulla. Tulokset osoittivat, että noin puolet metsänomistajista suhtautuivat liito-oravaan ja sen suojeluun kielteisesti ja heidän vastauksissaan oli havaittavissa selkeää reaktanssia. Taustatekijöistä asenteisiin vaikutti eniten vastaajan omistaman metsän pinta-ala. Kielteiset metsänomistajat vastustivat heidän metsätaloustoimiaan rajoittavaa lainsäädäntöä, eivätkä uskoneet liito-oravan olevan kovin uhanalainen. Metsänomistajat, joille oli määrätty rajauksia, suhtautuivat kaikista kielteisemmin liito-oravaan liittyviin väittämiin. Ryhmittelyanalyysin perusteella kuitenkin noin puolet vastaajista suhtautuivat melko myönteisesti liito-oravaan ja 70 % metsänomistajista olivat tyytyväisiä saamiinsa liito-oravapäätöksiin. Vuoden 2016 muutokset tulevat varmasti heikentämään entisestään liito-oravan suojelua, kun muutokset antavat käsityksen, ettei lajinsuojelu ole tärkeää. Liito-oravan suojelun jatkosuunnitteluun kannattaisi tämän tutkimuksen tulosten perusteella ottaa metsänomistajat mukaan. Iso lajinsuojelullinen ongelma on se, ettei suuri osa metsänomistajista usko liito-oravan olevan uhanalainen. Tätä epäkohtaa voitaisiin korjata esimerkiksi osallistamalla metsänomistajia liito-oravakannan koon arviointiin.

Boreaaliset metsät toimivat tärkeinä metaanin nieluina globaalissa metaaninvaihdossa maaekosysteemien ja ilmakehän välillä. Viimeaikaiset tutkimukset ovat kuitenkin osoittaneet, että boreaalinen metsä voi ajoittain myös päästää metaania ilmakehään. Myös kasvillisuuden on havaittu voivan päästää metaania. Boreaalisen metsän metaanidynamiikan ja metaanipäästöjen tarkempi selvittäminen on tärkeää ja ajankohtaista, koska metaani on hyvin voimakas kasvihuonekaasu ja sen pitoisuus ilmakehässä kasvaa. Tässä tutkimuksessa tutkin metsänpohjan ja ilmakehän välistä metaaninvaihtoa maakammiomittauksilla. Mittauspaikka sijaitsee Helsingin yliopiston Hyytiälän metsäaseman boreaalisessa mäntyvaltaisessa (Pinus sylvestris) kangasmetsässä, SMEAR II -tutkimusasemalla. Tutkimusta edeltävänä kesänä SMEAR II -asemaa ympäröivän metsän latvuston yläpuolelta mitattiin metaanipäästöjä, joten tämän tutkimuksen erityisenä kiinnostuksen kohteena olivat mahdolliset metsänpohjan metaanipäästöt. Tein mittaukset staattisella kammiomittausmenetelmällä yhteensä 54 kammiolla toukokuusta syyskuuhun alueellisen ja ajallisen vaihtelun selvittämiseksi. Lisäksi tutkin maan lämpötilan ja kosteuden, ilman lämpötilan, sadannan, fotosynteettisesti aktiivisen säteilyn (engl. photosynthetically active radiation, PAR) ja rahkasammalpeitteisyyden (Spaghnum sp.) vaikutusta metaanivoihin. Tutkimus osoitti, että mittausalueen metsän pohja toimi keskimäärin metaanin nieluna, mutta pienet soistuneet alueet päästivät ajoittain huomattavia määriä metaania. Koko mittausjakson keskimääräinen metaanivuo mittausalueella oli −4,0 µmol CH4 m−2 h−1, mikä vastaa aiempien tutkimusten perusteella tyypillistä keskiarvoa boreaalisen metsämaan metaanivuosta. Metaanipäästöjä mitattiin pääasiassa kahdesta mittauspisteryhmästä kesän alkupuolella, jolloin maan kosteus oli suurimmillaan. Maan kosteus ja rahkasammalten (Spaghnum sp.) peittävyys kammion sisällä olivat tärkeimmät metaanivuohon vaikuttavat tekijät. Metaanivoiden todettiin olevan positiivisessa yhteydessä näiden lisäksi myös fotosynteettisesti aktiivisen säteilyn eli PAR-säteilyn kanssa, mikä osoittaa, että kasvillisuus todennäköisesti vaikuttaa metaanivuohon. Maan lämpötila puolestaan oli käänteisesti yhteydessä metaanivoiden kanssa. Metsänpohjan metaanipäästöt tulivat vain osittain samalta suunnalta kuin edellisenä vuonna ekosysteemitasolla havaitut metaanipäästöt. Vaikka metsänpohjan metaanipäästöt olivat paikallisesti hyvin suuria, niitä esiintyi vain hetkellisesti ja siten tämän tutkimuksen perusteella metsänpohja ei vaikuttaisi olevan merkittävä alueellinen metaanin lähde. Edelleen jää selvitettäväksi, mistä mahdolliset metaanipäästöt tulevat ja havaitaanko metaanipäästöjä mastomittauksilla tulevina vuosina. Suuren ajallisen ja paikallisen vaihtelun vuoksi on tärkeää mitata metaanipäästöjä eri vuosina ja eri kokoluokan menetelmillä. Mastomittauksiin ja maakammiomittauksiin perustuvien metaanivoiden keskinäinen vertailu toteutetaan, kun saadaan mittaustuloksia molemmista menetelmistä samanaikaisesti. Näin saadaan tietoa metsän pohjan ja latvuston merkityksestä metsän metaanivuohon.