Browsing by Subject "Itämeri"
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(2015)Sound travels faster and further in water than in air while electromagnetic radiation, among it visible light, attenuates fast. Marine animals have adapted to use sound in foraging, predator avoidance, orientation and communication with conspecifics. The underwater soundscape of the Baltic Sea remains largely undiscovered. The area is a unique acoustic environment due to its variant hydrography, broken coastline, shallowness, low salinity and the resulting strong stratifications. The harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) is the only cetacean inhabiting the area, and its Baltic Sea subpopulation is critically endangered. This work is based on first sound pressure measurements of BIAS (Baltic Sea Information on the Acoustic Soundscape) -project by Finnish Environment Institute and other project participants. Measured sound pressure levels are compared to weather and shipping observations to collect information about the contributions of natural and anthropogenic sound sources to underwater sound pressure levels in the Baltic Sea. In addition porpoise observations collected at the Universities of Southern Denmark and Århus are compared to measured sound pressure levels and shipping data to examine if increased noise levels or increased shipping activity have an impact on harbor porpoise echolocation activity. The results show that at the Gulf of Finland both weather and shipping drive the levels of ambient noise at low frequencies (63 and 125 Hz third-octave bands). However the sound pressure levels caused by ships near the stations (up to 5 km) always exceeded all natural variation. Increased sound pressure levels and ship proximity seemed to have an impact on porpoise activity at the area. When a ship was very close (2 km), the registrations of porpoise echolocation clicks decreased with decreasing proximity to ship. On the other hand during spring months an increase in porpoise echolocation was recorded in relation to increased sound pressure levels, which might indicate the porpoises compensating to increased background noise by echolocating more frequently or loudly.
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(2022)The Baltic Sea consists of islands, islets, and underwater nature. The sea’s species and habitats form a complex, interdependent network. The Baltic Sea is a challenging environment due to its low salinity, slow water turnover, and the densely populated catchment area. Species in the Baltic Sea have adapted to these circumstances, but climate change, eutrophication and different human induced pressures threaten the sea’s biodiversity. Biodiversity loss can be mitigated through protection areas. However, protection is not always successful. For example, insects and fungi often lack sufficient protection, whereas animals such as birds are more eagerly protected. Humans tend to protect charismatic or beautiful species and ignore others, even when other species’ need for protection is more dire. Establishing effective marine protected areas (MPAs) is difficult as information on underwater life is lacking. Finland’s underwater nature is better known, as it has been explored in the VELMU programme since 2004. In this thesis I study the governing documents of privately owned MPAs established during the last ten years in the Baltic Sea. Privately owned MPAs are the most common MPA type in Finnish marine areas. My research questions are: 1) Which nature values are represented in the privately owned MPAs? 2) How well is the underwater nature represented? The number of governing documents is 63. My method is qualitative content analysis and quantification of data. The material was coded using Atlas.ti. The nature values in the governing documents formed three categories: vegetation, birds, and underwater nature. Protecting vegetation was mentioned in 52 documents, birds in 39 documents, and underwater nature in 28 documents. The protection of underwater nature was most often based on protecting underwater habitats outlined in the EU’s habitat directive, instead of protecting underwater species. Birds and vegetation in the archipelago are somewhat comprehensively protected in privately owned MPAs. Although all 63 MPAs included a water area, underwater nature is mentioned in less than half of the governing documents. Underwater nature values are not always mentioned even when the MPA consists mostly of water, or when the governing document mentions the beauty or value of the water area. Descriptions of underwater nature are also often lacking in detail compared to the descriptions of vegetation and birds. To ensure biodiversity both underwater and above, underwater nature values should be protected more efficiently. Especially from the perspective of bird protection, it is noteworthy that protection usually does not cover their underwater food sources.
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(2024)Itämeri ja Suomenlahti ovat voimakkaan ihmisvaikutuksen alaisena, mikä on aiheuttanut suuria muutoksia monissa kalapopulaatioissa. Tästä huolimatta tieto rantavyöhykkeen kalaston tilasta näissä olosuhteissa on vähäistä ja paikoittaista: tietoa niiden pitkän ajan kehityksestä 2000-luvun Itämeressä ei ole. Tutkin touko-syyskuussa 2023 rantavyöhykkeen kalastoa poikasnuottaamalla Hangon Tvärminnessä, läntisellä Suomenlahdella. Selvitin kalojen runsauden alueella laskemalla sekä kalojen määrän pyyntiponnistusta kohti että kalaston yksilötiheyden. Kartoitin kalaston lajikoostumuksen laskemalla lajien suhteelliset runsaudet, sekä laskemalla ajallisia ja alueellisia diversiteetti-indeksejä. Vuodenaikaisvaihtelua selvitin vertailemalla kuukausittaisia saaliita, sekä arvioimalla poikasten määrän ajallista vaihtelua. Vertailemalla tuloksiani tietoihin vuodelta 1992 tutkin kalastossa tapahtuneita pitkän ajan muutoksia. Kalojen runsaus romahti yli 90 % vuodesta 1992 vuoteen 2023. Yksilömäärän lasku koski lähes kaikkia lajeja, ollen rajoittumatta sellaisiin, jotka suosivat tiettyjä ympäristön olosuhteita. Vuoden 2023 saaliissa oli kolme uutta lajia, kun taas kymmentä vuonna 1992 esiintynyttä taksonia ei havaittu. Runsaimmat lajit 2023 olivat kolmipiikki (Gasterosteus aculeatus L., 1758), salakka (Alburnus alburnus L., 1758), liejutokko (Pomatoschistus microps Krøyer, 1838) ja hietatokko (Pomatoschistus minutus Pallas, 1770), jotka muodostivat yli 90 % saaliista. Silakka (Clupea harengus membras L., 1761), kilohaili (Sprattus sprattus L., 1758) ja ahven (Perca fluviatilis L., 1758) olivat erittäin runsaita 1992 mutta erittäin harvassa 2023, kun salakan määrä taas kasvoi yli kaksikymmenkertaisesti. Poikasten ilmaantuminen runsaissa määrin tapahtui kuukautta myöhemmin vuonna 2023, todennäköisesti johtuen kylmemmistä alkukesän lämpötiloista. Kalamäärän romahdus on todennäköisesti seurausta sekä vuosittaisesta poikasmäärän vaihtelusta että kalojen vähenemisestä pitkällä aikavälillä. Silakan, kilohailin ja ahvenen vähäiset määrät johtuvat todennäköisesti poikasmäärän vuosittaisvaihtelusta, joskin tämän varmistaminen vaatii vuosittaisia mittauksia. Salakan määrän runsas kasvu viittaa rehevöitymisen ja vesien lämpenemisen vaikutukseen. Tulokseni korostavat tähän mennessä huonosti tunnettujen pitkän ajan muutosten laajuutta Itämeren rantavyöhykkeen kalastossa.
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(2020)Laivojen painolastiveden mukana kulkeutuminen on merkittävin väylä vieraslajien leviämiseen Itämerelle. Vieraslajeista voi olla haittaa ympäristölle ja yhteiskunnalle, ja Kansainvälinen merenkulkujärjestö (IMO) onkin hyväksynyt painolastivesien käsittelyä koskevan yleissopimuksen, jonka tarkoituksena on estää haitallisia lajeja leviämästä painolastiveden mukana alueelta toiselle. Sopimuksen mukaan laivan painolastivesi täytyy käsitellä niin, että veden sisältämät eliöt kuolevat, ennen kuin veden voi laskea mereen. Käsittelyn voi kuitenkin jättää väliin poikkeusluvalla, jos haitallisten vieraslajien leviämisen riski katsotaan olevan hyväksyttävällätasolla. Riskin arvioinnissa keskeisessä asemassa ovat niin kutsutut kohdelajit, joiden katsotaan voivan aiheuttaa vahinkoa ympäristölle, ihmisten terveydelle tai taloudelle. Arvioinnissa tarkastellaan näiden kohdelajien mahdollisuuksia siirtyä painolastiveden mukana alueelta toiselle, selvitä vastaanottavalla alueella ja aiheuttaa haittavaikutuksia. Itämeren kohdelajien valintaan kehitetty kriteeristö arvioi eliölajien (1) suhdetta painolastivesiin, (2) mahdollisia vaikutuksia Itämeren eri osien ekosysteemeissä ja ympäröivässä yhteiskunnassa, (3) aiemman leviämisen todisteita ja (4) nykyistä levinneisyyttä. Vallitsevassa luokituslähestymistavassa asiantuntijapaneelin arvioimaan kriteerien täyttymiseen tai täyttymättä jäämiseen ei ajatella liittyvän lainkaan epävarmuutta. Tämän tutkielman tavoitteena on kehittää kohdelajien luokitusta varten todennäköisyyspohjainen Bayes-verkkomalli, joka ottaa huomioon kohdelajikriteerien täyttymiseen liittyviä eliölajikohtaisia epävarmuuksia ja laskee luokitukselle todennäköisyysjakauman. Malli rakennettiin noudattamaan kriteeristöä, ja sitä testattiin neljälle esimerkkivieraslajille, jotka kaikki esiintyvät jo joissain osissa Itämerta: vaeltajasimpukalle (Dreissena polymorpha), villasaksiravulle (Eriocheir sinensis), amerikankampamaneetille (Mnemiopsis leidyi) ja sirokatkaravulle (Palaemon elegans). Kahdeksan vieraslajeihin perehtynyttä asiantuntijaa arvioi kyselykaavakkeen avulla eliölajikohtaisesti kuhunkin kriteriin liittyvää tutkimustiedon tasoa, antaen itsenäisen arvionsa jokaisen kriteerin täyttymistodennäköisyydestä. Saadut asiantuntija-arviot syötettiin lajikohtaisiin malleihin, jolloin mallit antoivat tulokseksi kunkin lajin todennäköisyyden kuulua kohdelaji-luokkaan. Näin ollen mallin on tarkoitus vetää yhteen epävarmuutta, joka nousee toisaalta vallitsevasta tieteellisen tiedon tasosta ja toisaalta asiantuntijoiden näkemysten välisestä hajonnasta. Tuloksia voidaan tarkastella asiantuntijakohtaisesti sekä koko asiantuntijajoukon yhteisten keskiarvojakaumien kautta. Tarkasteltaessa asiantuntijajoukon yhdistettyjä keskiarvojaaumia, vaeltajasimpukka kuuluu kohdelajiluokkaan 99,4 %, villasaksirapu 86,9 %, amerikankampamaneetti 84,9 % ja sirokatkarapu 78,3 % todennäköisyydellä, kun tarkastellaan keskiarvojakaumia. Eniten epävarmuutta liittyy lajien vaikutuksiin uudessa ympäristössä, kun taas paras tietotaso ja vähiten epävarmuutta liittyy kriteereihin lajin suhteeseen painolastiveteen ja todisteisiin lajin aiemmasta leviämisestä. Vaikutusten haitallisuutta voi olla vaikea arvioida muun muassa siksi, että vieraslajit eivät vaikuta Itämeren ekosysteemiin yksin, vaan ovat vuorovaikutuksessa muiden lajien kanssa. Asiantuntijoiden välisissä arvioissa oli eroja erityisesti epävarmuutta sisältävissä kriteereissä. Asiantuntijat itse arvioivat kyselyn useammin helpoksi kuin vaikeaksi, mutta silti arviointityöhön liittyi haasteita. Tutkielman mallia rakennettaessa kävi ilmi, että alkuperäisissä kriteereissä on jonkin verran tulkinnanvaraa, mikä saattoi osaltaan vaikuttaa asiantuntijoiden arvioiden eroavaisuuksiin. Kriteerejä onkin syytä muokata selkeämmiksi. Myös kohdelajiluokituksen Bayes-verkkomallia kannattaa kehittää lisää yhteistyössä asiantuntijoiden kanssa. Koska epävarmuus tulee ilmi tutkielmassa käytetyllä Bayes-verkkomenetelmällä, se voidaan ottaa huomioon, kun tehdään päätöksiä eliöiden kohdelajiluokituksesta. Mallista havaitaan, mihin kriteereihin liittyy epävarmuutta ja tätä tietoa voi hyödyntää lisätutkimuksen kohdentamisessa.
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(2019)Microplastics are small 1–5000 μm plastic particles, which can be found all around the world. In this Master thesis I explored how microplastics are spatially distributed in bottom sediments in the northern Baltic Sea. As part of this work effects of methods on microplastics extraction from sediment were evaluated. The Marine Strategy Framework Directive requires European member states to monitor the state of the marine waters, which includes also micro sized litter in subtidal sediments. As for now there is no ready-made methods. In this Master thesis work I tested if Gemax- multi corer and Petite Ponar-grab had significant effect on number of microplastics in the sample and if filter’s mesh size affects results significantly. As part of this work I developed a protocol for extracting microplastics from sediment without harming them and a way to count and measure particles from samples by using semi-automated software. Microplastics were extracted from the sediment with density separation using sediment-microplastic separation unit. Extracted microplastic samples were purified from organic matter by using hydrogen peroxide, enzymes and second density separation. After extraction and purification, sample filters were fluorescent stained with Nile red dye and photographed with camera attached to stereomicroscope under fluorescent light. Pictures were processed and fluorescent particles analyzed with ImageJ- software. Results were corrected with control samples and with results from Fourier transfer infrared spectroscopy, which was used to verify synthetic part of the fluorescent particles. First part of samples was sediment from seven subtidal locations along the Finnish coast from Kotka to Vaasa, which were collected during summer 2017. Second part of sediment samples were collected in 2018 from semi enclosed Pojo bay from Southwest Uusimaa. Laboratory work was conducted in Finnish Environment Institute’s (SYKE) Marine Research Laboratory in Viikki. There was no significant difference in microplastic concentration between sediment core or grab samplers, but filter’s mesh size had significant effect on the results. There were significant differences in microplastic concentrations between sampling stations on the coastline and in Pojo bay. Greatest concentrations, 22 microplastics per gram of dry sediment, was found from Porvoo, which differed significantly from Kotka and Vaasa. In this thesis I explore possible reasons for the differences between areas. Smallest and second smallest size fractions differed significantly from three largest size classes. Two smallest size classes (25-100 μm) made up 80 % of all the particles found. This finding is in line with other studies that studied microplastic concentrations in different size classes. In the thesis, I discuss how disproportionally into size classes divided microplastics affects results and monitoring. Suggestions are presented for improving microplastic extraction protocol and monitoring. This study is one of the very first microplastic studies from subtidal sediments of the northern Baltic Sea where quantities and spatial distribution of microplastics are evaluated. These results can be used in future for establishing national microplastic extraction protocol and monitoring program.
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(2020)In this Master’s thesis, I investigated the number of microplastics (< 5 mm) in three different groups of benthic invertebrates found in the Baltic Sea: the clam Limecola balthica, the polychaete Marenzelleria spp. and the bloodworm Chironomus spp. larvae. I also investigated the number of microplastics in the soft sediments that are the natural habitats of these animals. I collected the samples along the coast of the Gulf of Finland, between Hanko, Helsinki, and Kotka. To extract the microplastics from the samples I used density separation, hydrogen peroxide and enzymes. I analyzed the samples by focal plane array µFTIR and the spectra were automatically compared to a reference library by MPHunter software. According to this study, the benthic invertebrates are exposed to high quantities of microplastics in their natural habitat, and the animals end up ingesting microplastics. The number of microplastics in the sediment samples were high (between 0–10 145 kg-1 and 1 847–93 973 kg-1 DW sediment), and 90% of them were <300 µm sized particles that the animals used in this study normally ingest, and 54 % were <100 µm sized particles that the animals prefer the most. On average, all the animals had ingested the smaller microplastics that were available in sediments. Despite the high concentration of microplastics in the sediments, the animals had ingested only low numbers of microplastics per individual on average (L. balthica 0,11 ± 0,05 pcs., Marenzelleria spp. 0,46 ± 0,63 pcs., and Chironomus spp. 0,27 ± 0,19 pcs.). No relationship was found between the three different animal groups and the presence of ingested plastic particles, so the animal groups seem to be equally exposed to microplastics. No relationship was either found between the animal groups and the sizes of ingested microplastics. The plastic materials found in the animals and sediments (PA, PP, PE, PET, PMMA and PVC) are commonly used plastic materials. Most of these materials are used in disposable packaging and fishing gear that are the most common sources of microplastics found in marine environments. Although the number of ingested microplastics in benthic invertebrates in the Gulf of Finland seems to be low, the exposure to the microplastics can still be high during their lifetime. The results of this study depict the presence of microplastics in animals during a certain time. The low number of ingested microplastics may present the fact that microplastics do not accumulate in the animals, but rather pass through the digestive system in a short time (2–4 h). The ingested microplastics pose a risk to benthic invertebrates causing them physical and chemical harm. Oxidizing and bioturbating the sediments and as nutrition to other animals the benthic invertebrates have an important role in the Baltic Sea ecosystem, and therefore the consequences of the microplastic in benthic invertebrate community might be far-reaching. It is important to investigate the long term impact of microplastics on benthic invertebrates in order to estimate the real consequences to the marine ecosystems.
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(2018)In this Master’s thesis, microplastic (<5 mm) ingestion by coastal fish in Finland was investigated. Fish were caught at nine locations on the coast of Finland. Water samples were taken at seven locations. The research questions were: How much microplastics are there in coastal fish in Finland? Are there differences in the frequency of microplastic ingestion by fish between different locations or species? Is there a relationship between the size of the fish and the presence of ingested plastic particles? Is there a relationship between the stomach fullness and the presence of ingested plastic particles? Does the frequency of microplastic ingestion by fish correlate with the amount of microplastics in seawater in the same locations? The gastrointestinal tracts of 503 fish were analysed. Microplastics were found in 40 fish (8 %). The frequency of fish with plastic was significantly higher in Kivinokka, Helsinki than in other locations studied. No relationship was found between the size or the species of the fish and the presence of ingested plastic particles. Also, no relationship was found between the stomach fullness and plastic ingested. There was no correlation between the frequency of microplastic ingestion by fish and the amount of microplastics in seawater. The results of the thesis were compared to previous research results from the open sea areas of the northern Baltic Sea. The comparison suggests that the ingestion of microplastics is more common in coastal fish in Finland than in the open water fish in the northern Baltic Sea. This thesis provides the first published record of plastic particles in the gastrointestinal tracts of coastal fish in Finland. Long-term studies are recommended in order to confirm the results.
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(2020)Ecosystem modelling gives us a tool to understand the complicated processes in an ecological system. When studying the changes in an ecosystem, the system health is one of the main characteristics to define. Healthy ecosystem can endure stress and is in stable state. Ecological network analysis and different ecological indices have been used as a basis for measuring the state of an ecosystem, characterizing the dynamics of marine environments, and quantifying the impacts of fishing. The Archipelago Sea, located in Northern Baltic Sea, is characterized by large gradients in salinity and numerous islands. The area is greatly affected by human impact and climate change. However, no broad research on ecosystem changes has been carried out, hence, there is a need for holistic models both scientifically and societally to understanding the changing ecosystem thoroughly and to provide contribution in the decision-making processes of environmental management actions. The aim of this study was to find out how the state of the Archipelago Sea food web has changed from 1990 to 2014. Three steady-state trophic models of the study area for three different years (1990, 2000 and 2014) were constructed using the Ecopath modelling software and approach. The changes in the study area were measured comparing the calculated ecological indices and fishing impact indicators. The models captured changes in the system such as before and after the invasion of non-indigenous species, increase of cormorants, increase of seals, and decrease of cod. The models consist of 23 (1990), 25 (2000) and 27 (2014) different functional groups from predators to producers and detritus. The quality of the models was tested and according to three different approaches, the models can be said to adequately represent the Archipelago Sea food web and ecosystem. The ecosystem indices calculated showed that there had been system wide changes. The state of the Archipelago Sea food web had changed during the study period to a less mature but more resilient condition. This was due to the increase in number of predator species and higher primary production and flow to detritus. The fishing impact on ecosystem changed as fishery practice experienced a change into a more industrialized direction. Changes in trophic levels and ecosystem composition were observed. The invasion of non-indigenous species and the increase in top predators such as seals and the great cormorant affected the structure of the food web. In Addition, the decrease of flounder and unsuccessful recovery of cod have had an impact on the ecosystem and its maturity. Further research on the Archipelago Sea food web is needed. The ecosystem is stressed and does not show recovery; hence, management actions may become necessary. Future simulations based on these Ecopath models would facilitate the selection of the most suitable ecosystem management application. Knowledge of the whole ecosystem and its health is required, and this can be achieved with the help of ecosystem modelling.
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(2023)Human-induced nutrient enrichment has led to eutrophication, which is globally a severe environmental problem in aquatic ecosystems. Eutrophication has a variety of deteriorating effects on marine ecosystems in the form of e.g., cyanobacterial blooms, bottom water hypoxia and anoxia, as well as increased fish and benthos mortality. The Baltic Sea is especially prone to eutrophication due to the combined effects of restricted water exchange and extensive nutrient loads. Nutrient enrichment reinforces primary production which further enhances organic matter remineralisation in the sediment – water interface, leading to oxygen depletion in the bottom waters. Decreased oxygen concentrations on the seafloor can lead to the release of phosphorus bound to reducible iron oxides. The so-called ‘vicious circle’ of internal loading is formed through the further enhanced nutrient release from the sediments into the water column due to the reduced bottom water conditions resulting from increased supply of organic matter into the system. However, the processes controlling phosphorus transport from land to sea through the ‘coastal filter’ remain poorly understood. In this study, sediments from Paimionlahti estuary were examined for phosphorus content and bulk elemental composition. Sedimentary phosphorus contents were determined through chemical extractions. The extracted fractions of phosphorus (P) include Fe oxide bound P (Fe-P), authigenic apatite P (Ca-P I), detrital apatite P (Ca-P II), and organic P (org-P). The fraction of Fe-P dominated in the upper sediment layers in most sites, whereas more unreactive fractions associated with P burial remained constant through sediment depth. The generally unreactive forms of P illustrated increasing trends towards open sea areas, partly explained by changes in the overall sediment composition as well as by potential differences in environmental conditions among sampling sites. The highest amounts of Fe-P were recorded in sites with the highest sediment accumulation. The results demonstrate that P from rivers is transformed and processed in the coastal zone, delaying its transport to the open sea.
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(2024)As an almost enclosed sea, the Baltic Sea is generally defined as eutrophic, as external nutrient loading has exceeded the natural processing capacity of the system during the last 50-100 years. Nutrients have also accumulated in the sediments of the Baltic Sea. The Baltic Sea is naturally sensitive to eutrophication due to the combination of very long residence times and stratification increasing deep sea anoxia. Research questions for this systematic review are: how much have the nutrient concentrations and the trophic state of the Baltic Sea changed from the Litorina stage to the end of the pre-industrial era compared with the industrial era – year 2000, how has the nutrient status of the Baltic Sea changed between the year 2000 and the 2020´s and how do the future (modelled) scenarios of eutrophication of the Baltic Sea compare to the present state? This systematic review followed the PRISMA process. To be included in this thesis, each article found in the search had to fulfil at least one inclusion criterion without any exclusion criteria. The aim of the criteria was to find all time-unlimited original studies and necessary review articles. The databases of my thesis are Helka, Helda, Scopus, Web of Science and Google Scholar. Moreover, I included in my thesis some relevant reports from HELCOM, Finnish Environment Institute, Natural Resources Institute Finland, and Ministry of the Environment. Overall, 89 articles qualified answering at least one research question. 66 articles answered one research question. 19 articles answered two research questions 1-2 and 2-3, but none discussed the combination 1 and 3. Four articles answered all research questions. Over the millennia, hypoxia and cyanobacteria blooms took place in many parts of the Baltic Sea. As the Litorina Sea stabilized, there was more oxygen in the deep basins whilst phosphate decreased in the surface waters. At the beginning of the industrial era, nitrogen and phosphorus loads started to rise significantly. When it comes to the future scenarios of the eutrophication of the Baltic Sea, the trophic state might generally 1) decrease, 2) improve somewhat, or 3) improve to a good status in most basins. A near-pristine Baltic Sea is not reached in any of the scenarios.
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(2022)Aims and methods: Global plastic production is increasing annually and microplastics (MPs, particles of <5 mm in size) have been reported in the environment worldwide. In aquatic systems plastic pollution is present especially in coastal habitats, and MPs can concentrate within littoral zone vegetation. Numerous marine animals are known to be able to ingest MPs, and plastics can also have adverse effects on the health and behaviour of the exposed animals. This Master’s thesis examined trophic transfer of MPs in a Baltic Sea littoral food chain. Laboratory experiments with 10 µm fluorescence microspheres were conducted to study trophic transfer between food chains of different lengths. The longest food chain had three trophic levels: zooplankton, chameleon shrimp (Praunus flexuosus) and rockpool prawn (Palaemon elegans). Also, the gut passage time of rockpool prawn was experimentally studied. The digestive tracts of the studied animals were analysed for MPs under an epifluorescence microscope. Results: The results show that trophic transfer may be an important pathway of microplastic exposure for animals at higher trophic levels. The number of ingested microspheres in both chameleon shrimp and rockpool prawn was higher when the animals were exposed through pre-exposed prey in comparison to direct exposure from the water. In addition, the prawns ingested more MPs in the experiment with three trophic levels than in the two-level experiment. The results support earlier findings, that the feeding mode affects the microplastic exposure of animals. There were no clear results from the gut passage time experiment.
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(2020)Tämän tapaustutkimuksen kohteena on keväällä 2012 uutisotsikoita poikinut venäläisen lannoitetehtaan fosforipäästötapaus, joka herätti keskustelua menestystarinana pidetyn Itämeren ympäristönsuojeluyhteistyön nurjasta puolesta ja teki odottamattomien käänteidensä kautta näkyväksi yhteistyön osapuolten välisiä näkemysristiriitoja ja vastakkainasetteluita. Tutkielmalla on kolme päätavoitetta: (1) laatia kokonaisvaltainen ja seikkaperäinen kuvaus Lugajoen tapauksen keskeisistä käänteistä, (2) kuvata haastatteluaineiston sisällönanalyysin keinoin, millaisten ympäristönsuojeluyhteistyötä koskevien tulkintakehysten kautta tapauksen osapuolet jäsensivät Lugajoen tapahtumia sekä (3) selittää, millä tavoin nämä kehykset vaikuttivat siihen, millaisena osapuolet näkivät yhteistyön merkityksen ja toistensa roolit yhteistyön laajemmassa kontekstissa. Tutkielman empiirinen osio koostuu tapauskuvauksesta ja haastatteluaineiston kehysanalyysista. Ensisijaisen tutkimusaineiston muodostavat tapauksen eri osapuolia edustavien 15 suomalaisen ja venäläisen toimijan haastattelut. Tapauskuvauksen laatimisessa käytin tausta-aineistona suomalaisten ja venäläisten uutislähteiden tapausta käsitteleviä artikkeleita, eri tahojen julkaisemia tiedotteita sekä muuta saatavilla olevaa dokumenttiaineistoa, kuten tutkimusraportteja, osapuolten välisistä tapaamisista laadittuja muistioita ja kokouspöytäkirjoja. Tutkielman analyysiosiossa tarkastelen kuuden Itämeri-yhteistyön pitkäaikaisen toimijan haastatteluiden pohjalta, millaisten tulkintakehysten kautta he jäsensivät tapahtumia ja ympäristönsuojeluyhteistyötä laajemmin sekä sitä, millaisia ongelman- ja ratkaisunmäärittelyitä nämä kehykset pitävät sisällään. Tutkimuksen tuloksena hahmottuu kolme tulkintakehystä, joiden kautta haastateltavat tarkastelevat Itämeren ympäristönsuojeluyhteistyötä. Nämä ovat yhteistyöprosessin tasa-arvoisuutta ja vastavuoroisuutta korostava tasavertaisen yhteistyön kehys, toimijoiden henkilökohtaista vastuuta ja yhteistyön suoraa ympäristöllistä vaikuttavuutta korostava moraalisen vastuun kehys sekä yhteistyön välineellistä merkitystä ja institutionaalista vaikuttavuutta korostava ympäristökysymysten esiin nostamisen kehys. Tutkimuksen keskeisen loppupäätelmän mukaan yhteistyön normaalioloissa osapuolten tulkintakehykset eivät ole keskenään ristiriidassa, mutta Lugajoen tapauksen kaltainen kriisitilanne asetti ongelman- ja ratkaisunmäärittelyissä ympäristökysymysten ekologisia ja yhteiskunnallisia ulottuvuuksia eri tavalla painottavat kehykset poikkeuksellisesti vastakkain. Toisaalta kriisin nopean ratkaisemisen edellytyksenä oli ongelman pelkistäminen. Toisaalta keskustelua hallinnut ravinnekuormituksen määrää ja ekosysteeminlaajuisia seurauksia korostava moraalisen vastuun kehys sulki keskustelun ulkopuolelle paikallisten toimijoiden osallisuutta korostavia argumentteja ja ratkaisuvaihtoehtoja. Tämä vahvisti ennestään aiemmassa tutkimuksessa havaittua asetelmaa, jossa ympäristöyhteistyön venäläiset osapuolet ovat enemmän toiminnan kohteita kuin aktiivisia toimijoita
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