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Background. Knowing what a psychological test measures and if it works the same way in different contexts, i.e. has measurement invariance (MI), is crucial for its valid and reliable use. The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV) was published in Finland in 2012. However, recent research suggests that the factor model given in the WAIS-IV test manual and the information regarding MI between different age groups and levels of education are lacking. Methods. This study employed the normative sample of the Finnish WAIS-IV. First, the factor model in the manual was examined and improved using confirmatory factor analysis with a mixed data-theory approach. Second, the new model was tested for strict residual MI for different age groups and levels of education, in order to study if the test reaches an acceptable level of MI. Results and conclusions. The results indicated that the normative data is best modeled by an oblique non-g model. The study also replicated a Spatial Visualization factor with loadings from Block Design, Visual Puzzles and Picture Completion, and Quantitative Reasoning factor with Figure Weights and Arithmetic. A previously unmentioned link in factor analytic literature on WAIS-IV was found between Block Design and Processing Speed factors. The results questioned the link between Arithmetic and Verbal Comprehension factor and found the underlying source of shared variance to be links between Information and Arithmetic, which was interpreted as Educational Achievement. WAIS-IV reached strict residual MI for both different age groups and levels of education. The study offers a more accurate factor model of WAIS-IV and gives confidence that psychologists can reliably apply it over different ages and levels of education in the normal population of Finland.

Clever methods and research designs are needed in the research field of embodied thinking. There is a need to find repeatable research methods and testable hypothesis. (Nuñez, 2012, 329.) The aim of this master's thesis is to find solutions for how the embodied thinking can be identified in the knowledge creation process and how the embodied thinking can be recognized in the process and in the designed artifact. This research was implemented from the data gathered by the Handling Mind project, in Autumn 2014. It is a development study, where craft science student groups (three students) designed children's accessories for a sea world's guided tours. The purpose of applying the narrative expectation analysis was a pursuit to make the process of recognizing embodied thinking in the knowledge process more transparent. After the expectation analysis revealed occurrences of embodied thinking, idea-response pairs were defined and then formed into chains from a new idea to the final artifact, so as to interpret embodied thinking in knowledge creation process. The narrative expectation analysis resulted in a rich material for further analysis of the embodied thinking in a knowledge creation process. The spots where a new design idea and embodied thinking encountered in the collaborative design process were proved significant for the embodied thinking. These implemented analyzes revealed the essential themes of structure, materials, form and utility in designing an artifact in a collaborative design process. Based on these results it can be concluded that embodied thinking is observable with the narrative expectation analysis and embodied thinking can be recognized in a knowledge creation process. The use of narrative expectation analysis manifested itself as a useful method that revealed embodied thinking as expected. The pair and chain analysis supported the narrative nature of this study and reinforced the results of the narrative expectation analysis about revealing and identifying the embodied thinking in the knowledge creation process. According to the results and the small sample of this study in mind it can be argued that the learning in the knowledge creation process could be proved without formal exams or essays.

The study explores the educational debate in Sweden by analysing how Finnish education and the Finnish school is discussed in the Swedish daily newspaper Dagens Nyheter. The aim is to investigate how education is discussed in Dagens Nyheter and in what way Finland is highlighted in the debate and what is said. The purpose is to clarify what Finland's function in the debate is. Is Sweden compared to Finland and if so, in what way? Is Finland seen as a role model or as something antiquated or something completely different? The dissertation is based on a general theory, Niklas Luhmann's systems theory and on the research theories, externalization, reference society and the role of the media in education policy by opening the contemporary diagnostic phenomenon, the Finnish school in Swedish media commentary. Previous studies have shown that it is common in today's globalized world to look at other countries in education policy and that large-scale international comparisons of education systems such as PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) have led to other countries' results becoming reference points and legitimizing arguments in global education policy. For the empirical study, data was collected from Dagens Nyheter's digital service and archive. The material consisted of a total of 38 articles published between 2010-2018 and the news source's own search engine was utilized by using the keywords "education", "school" and "Finland". During this period, two PISA results were published in 2012 and 2015, which also significantly "heated up" the debate. After the material collection, a thematic content analysis was performed of the identified articles. The articles that highlighted Finland and Finnish education could be categorized according to three different main themes that were recurring and central to the Dagens Nyheter debate. The articles covered in Theme 1: Swedish school policy and reform debate, Theme 2: Teachers, teacher training and teacher salaries and Theme 3: PISA, learning outcomes and assessment. In addition, the function of Finland in the debate could be categorized by subcategories in which Finland's function was seen as either 1) a role model, 2) something antiquated or 3) a reference but not an influence. The study's results suggest that when Finland is seen a role model, Finland's function is a positive reference in which various good aspects of the Finnish educational system are presented and projected against the Swedish system. In addition the results show that when Finland is seen as something antiquated, it is not about Finland's function being a negative reference but more about how Sweden makes excuses to Finland's PISA success in legitimizing its own decisions. Finally, the results show that Finland's function can also be seen as a reference but not an influence when observing Finland and comparing but neither in a positive or negative sense or that Finland is seen as one among other reference countries. One can also distinguish that the education debate was "heated up" especially when new PISA results have been published and that the debate in Dagens Nyheter has been most lively during the years 2011-2012. In summary, the study results indicate that Finland is raised in the debate and has a function as a reference but that the degree of intensity varies and that it is always linked to the ever-changing dynamic between countries and who is the one referred to at that particular moment.

Goal. The purpose of this study was to investigate school teachers' experience of stuttering and students who stutter. The goal was to identify school teachers' knowledge about stuttering and the characteristics of stuttering. The purpose was also to investigate what kind of knowledge school teachers feel they need about stuttering. School teachers' awareness of stuttering has only received little attention in the field of logopedics. Researchers have emphasized the teacher's important role in school children who stutter, but previous research findings have shown that teachers have a defective knowledge about stuttering. School teachers' experience of stuttering and students who stutter has not, as been claimed, been investigated in Finland before. The goal of this study is to identify school teachers' experience of stuttering and students who stutter. Method. This was a quantitative survey. All principals in the Swedish speaking primary schools in Helsinki and Espoo were contacted and asked to forward an email with a link to a questionnaire to primary school teachers in the schools. E-questionnaire reached an estimated 400 primary school teachers. A total of 40 primary school teachers participated in the survey. Responses were analyzed by suitable quantitative analytical methods. The open questions were analyzed by using appropriate qualitative methods. Results and reflection. Over half of the teachers indicated that they had no knowledge of stuttering from the past. Half of the teachers assessed their knowledge of stuttering to be poor. Majority of the respondents reported that their current knowledge of the underlying cause was poor and consequently stuttering characteristics seemed to be unfamiliar to many. Only a fraction knew the different strategies they could use in the classroom with a student who stuttered. There seems to be a need to inform and educate primary school teachers on stuttering, to improve school teachers' knowledge about stuttering and inform them about how best to respond, assist and support students who stutter in the classroom setting.

Objectives. The goal of this thesis is to examine various positive methods in which a teacher can confront a challenging student in the classroom and redirect the student’s behaviour to fit the lessons agenda. This thesis will also aim to examine what kinds of challenging behaviour can be found from analysed drama lessons. Previous research has shown that teachers find interactions with challenging students to be often demanding. In the modern classroom teachers must be prepared to face challenging students and therefore there is a need to research teachers already working in the field to see how they confront challenging students in a positive way. Methods. The research for this thesis was done as a case-study based in video observations, where footage from the 2018 KEHU-project was utilized. The research footage contained five filmed lessons, which were taught by five various drama-specialized teachers across Finland. The teachers participating in this project taught grades one through third grade. The nature of this research was based on qualitative methods. The material was processed through content analysis and classification. Results and conclusions. Challenging behaviour was categorized into four distinct categories based off the filmed drama lessons, which were disruptive behaviour, wandering, disobedience and negative verbal or physical interaction. Challenging behaviour filmed during the lessons were often quite mild forms of challenging behaviour. Based on the results the teachers mostly conducted positive confrontations against challenging students and were able to redirect behaviour with efficient and practical methods. This thesis provided promising information in regards that teachers can redirect behaviour towards the lesson’s goals with positive interactions. Having a respective attitude towards students and striving towards dialogical interactions from the teacher appears to improve confronting the student, which has been proven in earlier research to be meaningful in regards to the students behaviour.

Digitalization and globalization have led to increased global competition, which has set new standards for the skills that employees ought to possess in working life. In this study, these capabilities are referred to as the 21st century working life skills, which includes both professional know-how and professional skills, life and career skills, ability to influence, thinking and learning skills, and technology skills. Absorbent workers are seen to bring competitive advantages to companies at national and international level, and now higher education institutions are expected to produce innovative experts with 21st working life skills to their service. The aim of this thesis was to examine the elements of the method of teaching the 21st century working life skills to higher education students. The research has been carried out by analyzing the reflection essays and feedback forms of the participants participating in hackathon events in 2016-2017. Hackathon events were selected for collecting data as their work habits resembled a great deal of future work-related and problem-solving-oriented working life. The material was analyzed by a material-based grounded theory method. The first research question examined whether the hackathon participants felt that they had developed professionally during the event regarding their own working life skills. Based on the research material, participating a hackathon event can support the participants’ professional development. The participants explicitly brought up the social, knowledge and skill related benefits of hackathon events. The participants reported that by participating a hackathon event they were also able to develop as individuals and felt empowerment regarding their future working life and their private lives. The main experience of the participants was that the hackathon event offered them something that their previous studies have not yet been able to offer. The second research question was used to determine what elements of the hackathon event supported the accumulation of 21st century working life skills. In other words it was studied, of what elements a teaching method that successfully transfers 21st century working life skills to higher education students is built. Participants' responses highlighted particularly event facilities, characteristics of their working groups, external supporters, positive and negative emotions as well as meaningful hackathon challenges and ways of working, and collaboration with businesses. As a conclusion it is to say that with such collaborative innovation pedagogy method, such as hackathon, the development of professional and 21st century skills of students of higher education institutions can be supported. By utilizing these kind of methods, the higher education institutions are also able to successfully answer to the new requirements set by the increased global competition.

The purpose of this study was to find out how humor is constructed in Finnish 21st century ABC books and what kind of meanings are given to these humorous discourses. The humor phenomena have long been studied and debated, but there has been no scientific research on humor in ABC books, even though humor is highly used in contemporary children literature. Studies have examined the pedagogical implications concerning the use of humor in teaching. Humor has been associated with a positive effect on learning, motivation, concentration, remembering and enhancing a positive classroom atmosphere. The research material consisted of four 21st century ABC books, published by Sanoma Pro Oy. The method of this study was discourse analysis, which entail a preference for a social constructionist epistemological perspective. Social constructivism stresses that knowledge is constructed via the interactions with the environment and the other people. The result of the study show that humor in contemporary ABC books is multileveled, using a wide variety of textual and narrative tools. The multileveled humor took place in three main humor discourse: language, narration and the narrated, typically absurd, world. Humor at the level of language arised mainly from the foregrounding of language and playing with words and meanings. Humor at the level of narration arised mainly from its coherency and incoherency. High forms of humor, for example irony and intertextual references, can be found, but they seem to demand more advanced reading skills, and therefore seem to be aimed for adult readers. Humor at the level of the narrated world based on its stereotyped and ambivalented characters and absurdities in its episodes. When it comes to certain themes, like bullying or illness, humor doesn’t seem to arise. Humor discourses of the studied ABC books amuse readers using a wide variety of textual and narrative tools, constructing different kinds of interpretational opportunities for different kinds of readers, not only for children and adult readers (primarily teachers), who adapt and understand humor to fit their own literary competence.

Aims and background: The purpose of this study is to find out what kind of challenges a visually impaired meets in a kitchen when preparing food. First I consider shortly visual impairments, secondly what kind of special equipment there are for visually impaired in a kitchen and thirdly what demands there are for the kitchen environment to be functional for visually impaired. The Research questions are 1) What kind of challenges a visually impaired person meets in a kitchen when preparing food and 2) How does she/he copes with the challenges she/he meets when preparing food and what kind of strategies she/he uses to cope with the challenges. Material and methods: This study is a case study which was based on observation. The Data was collected by videotaping food preparation and baking in a rehabilitation Centre for Visually Impaired. A test subject was a visually impaired person. Results: The most important result was that the visually impaired person used very much sensory skills, first of all sense when she/he was preparing food. Secondly an equally important thing was the systematic performance when she/he was working throughout the whole cooking session. The third but not so significant observation was the use of other senses vision, hearing, smell and taste. Any special equipment for visually impaired were hardly used. Conclusions: Tactual skills are the most important means to cope with the challenges. Another important mean is the systematic way of working. Using these means cooking goes safety and fluently. These results can be used for decreasing those challenges which can be faced when visually impaired are preparing food, baking and working in the kitchen and for making improvements in a kitchen environment.

The rise of Special education numbers in Finland has caused a situation where Finland's ten largest LEA's so called kymppikunnat (ten communes) have expressed their growing concern of organizing the special education in the current institutional settings. The LEA's started the conversation of redefining special education system in 2004. Their aim was to target the governments attention to the problematics of special education. By the request of the Ministry of Education the LEA's prepared a final report concerning the central questions in the Finnish special education system. On the basis of the LEA's survey it became even clearer that the legislation, funding system and curriculum are tightly linked together. The following LEA's took part into the writing process Espoo, Helsinki, Jyväskylä, Kuopio, Lahti, Lappeenranta, Tampere, Turku and Vantaa. The report was hand over to the Ministry of Education at 18.8.2006. After the delivery the Ministry organized special education development group meetings 17 times in the year 2007. The result of the LEA's report and the development meetings was a new Special Education Strategy 2007. I am observing the dialogue between administrational levels in governmental institutions change process. The research is a content analysis where I compare the "Erityistä tukea tarvitsevan oppilaan opetuksen järjestämisen uudistaminen osana yhtenäistä perusopetusta- kohti laatua ja joustavuutta" (The renewal of the organization of teaching for student with special educational needs as part of unified education for all - towards quality and flexibility) document to "Erityisopetuksen strategia" (Special education strategy) document. My aim was to find out how much of their own interests have the LEA's been able to integrate into the official governmental documentation. The data has been organized and analyzed quantitatively with Macros created as additional parts in Microsoft Excel software. The document material has also been arranged manually on sentence based categorization into an Excel matrix. The results have been theoretically viewed from the special education reform dialogue perspective, and from the angle of the change process of a bureaucratic institution. My target has been to provide a new viewpoint to the change of special education system as a bureaucratic institution. The education system has traditionally been understood as a machine bureaucracy. By the review provided in my pro gradu analysis it seems however that the administrational system in special education is more of a postmodern network bureaucracy than machine bureaucracy. The system appears to be constructed by overlapping, crossing and complex networks where things are been decided. These kinds of networks are called "governance networks . It seems that the governmental administrational - and politic levels, the third sector actors and other society's operators are mixed in decision making.

The purpose of this qualitative research was to describe and interpret the meaning and grounds of worldview education from the guardians perspective and their wishes regarding worldview education in early childhood education. Previous research has shown worldview education to be a tense content area within early childhood education. Studies have focused mostly on the professionals point of view. Whereas little attention has been given to the guardians perspective. The research questions were as follows: 1. What meanings do guardians give to worldview education in early childhood education? 2. What grounds do guardians present for worldview education in early childhood education? 3. What wishes do the guardians express towards early childhood worldview education? The data consisted of four thematic interviews and open-ended entries of the questionnaire. 11 guardians answered the questionnaire. The data was analyzed using theory-driven content analysis, and utilized methods based on discourse analysis. The results were mirrored with Balčin et al.'s (2021) model of the worldview dimension of worldview education. The data shows that guardians see multi-perspective worldview education as a way of promoting accepting differences and as a mediator of a model of a good person. The necessity of the content area was questioned as early childhood education resources are critical. The meanings were built from a secular and pluralistic dimension. The guardians' grounds for worldview education focused on a shared Finnish value base, the nurturing of cultural tradition and the rights of the child. The grounds were located in the secular and monovalent dimension. The guardians expressed a preference for religious sensitivity and valued a high level of competence in worldview education from the professionals, nonalignment of worldview education, uniform practices, caution on trips to other worldview communities and stronger description of worldview education and discussion about it. The wishes were focused on the secular dimension. The guardians had a positive attitude to multi-perspective worldview education, but the practices related to its implementation revealed tense questions and attitudes in which the interpretation of one's own background in worldview education was highlighted. This thesis reveals that discussion about world-view education between guardians and personnel in early childhood education is in major role promoting multi-valued society which allows different worldviews. Discussion requires personnels' competence of worldview reflection and sensitive attitude towards religion and worldviews. In the light of this thesis, these previous skills should be supported among personnel in early childhood education.