Browsing by department "Ympäristötieteiden laitos"

Typpi on perustuotantoa rajoittava ravinne lähes koko Itämerellä. Typen kierto perustuu mikrobien välittämiin hapetus-pelkistysreaktioihin, joissa typpeä muunnetaan erilaisiin muotoihin. Ammonifikaatiossa mikrobit mineralisoivat liuennutta tai partikulaarista orgaanista typpeä ammoniumiksi ja DNRA- prosessissa (dissimilatorinen nitraatin pelkistys ammoniumiksi)mikrobit pelkistävät nitraattia ammoniumiksi. Ammonium on biologisesti kaikkein käyttökelpoisin typen muoto ja siksi sen pitoisuudet ovat vesipatsaassa yleensä hyvin pieniä. Mikrobiprosessien mittaamiseksi myös pienten ammoniumpitoisuuksien määrittäminen on tärkeää. Pro gradu-tutkielmassa määritettiin DNRA:n ja ammonifikaation prosessinopeuksia Varsinaisen Itämeren vesipatsaassa hyödyntämällä stabiili-isotooppitekniikkaa. Tutkimuksen edellytyksenä oli selvittää kokeellisesti alin luotettava määritysraja ammoniumin 15N-pitoisuudelle. Menetelmäkehitystä varten valmistettiin koesarjoja ultrapuhtaasta vedestä ja tunnetun 15N:14N -suhteen omaavista ammoniumkloridijauheista. Minimimääritysrajakokeessa etsittiin eri ammoniumin ainemääriä sisältävän koesarjan avulla massaspektrometrisen analyysin tarvittava alin ammoniumin ainemäärä. Minimimääritysrajan alapuolelle pyrittiin pääsemään tekemällä kantoliuoskoe. Kantoliuoskokeessa valmistettiin eri ammoniumin ainemääriä (0,5 atom. %) sisältävä koesarja, joiden ammoniumin ainemäärää kasvatettiin lisäämällä näyteliuoksiin kantoliuosta, jonka määrä ja isotooppisuhteet tunnettiin. Kantoliuoslisäysten jälkeen näytteet analysoitiin massaspektrometrillä ja tuloksista seurattiin 15N:14N – suhteen muutosta eri laimennoksissa. Pienin luotettavasti määritetty ammoniumin ainemäärä oli 0,5 µmol. Kantoliuoskokeilla ei onnistuttu optimoimaan määritysrajaa pienemmäksi, eikä menetelmää siten hyödynnetty vesinäytteiden DNRA- ja ammonifikaatiomittauksissa. DNRA- ja ammonifikaatiomittauksia varten kerättiin vesinäytteitä Varsinaiselta Itämereltä neljältä eri näytteenottoasemalta (Läntisen Gotlannin, Itäisen Gotlannin , Fårön ja Landsortin syvänteet) toukokuussa 2011. Lisäksi Itäiseltä Gotlannin syvänteeltä otettiin vesinäytteet DNRA- ja ammonifikaatiomittauksia varten myös heinäkuussa 2011. Vesinäytteitä rikastettiin 15N- ammoniumilla siten, että näytteiden 15N- pitoisuudeksi saatiin 5 µM. Näytteitä inkuboitiin 24 tuntia in situ- olosuhteissa. Inkuboinnin jälkeen näytteistä mitattiin 15N- leima ammonium diffuusio- menetelmällä. Tuloksista laskettiin DNRA- potentiaalit sekä ammonifikaation in situ- prosessinopeudet. Keväällä mitatut ammonifikaation in situ- prosessinopeudet olivat matalia (0,36- 8,35 nM d-1). Tuloksia saattoi selittää se, ettei kesäisen perustuotannon tuottama partikulaarinen orgaaninen typpi ollut vielä ammonifioijien käytettävissä. Eri asemilta mitatuissa prosessinopeuksissa ei ollut tilastollisesti merkitsevää eroa. Tutkittujen ympäristömuuttujien ja ammonifikaation prosessinopeuksien välillä ei havaittu korrelaatiota. DNRA- potentiaalituloksia saatiin vain toukokuussa Läntiseltä Gotlannin syvänteeltä ja heinäkuussa Itäiseltä Gotlannin syvänteeltä kerätyistä näytteistä. Läntiseltä Gotlannin syvänteeltä mitattu DNRA- potentiaalinopeus (1,14 nM d-1) oli lähes nelinkertainen heinäkuussa Itäiseltä Gotlannin syvänteeltä mitattuun DNRA- potentiaaliin (0,38 nM d-1) nähden. Ammonifikaation merkitys Itämerellä on todennäköisesti pienempi ulapalla kuin estuaareissa, joissa suuri orgaanisen aineksen kuormitus tuo jatkuvasti substraatteja ammonifikaatiolle. Keväisen piileväkukinnan nopeasta sedimentoitumisesta johtuen saattavat ammonifikaation prosessinopeudet Itämerellä keväisin olla suurempia sedimenteissä kuin vesipatsaassa. Itämeren erityispiirteet, kuten alhainen suolapitoisuus todennäköisesti inhiboi vesipatsaan DNRA:n esiintymistä, jonka seurauksena mitatut DNRA- nopeudet jäivät mataliksi. DNRA: n kanssa nitraatista kilpailevan kemolitoautotrofisen denitrifikaation on sen sijaan havaittu olevan pääasiallinen typpeä pelkistävä prosessi Varsinaisella Itämerellä.

Urbanization is occurring at rapid rates worldwide. While the effects of urbanization are numerous, those on wildlife are of utmost concern in the continued fight for biodiversity conservation. Specifically, the focus on global pollinator declines is of interest due to the interconnectedness between pollinators and plant communities. It is feared that urban areas could become dead zones to these species, specifically bumblebees. Bumblebees are one of the native pollinators of Finland, and therefore were the focus of this study, which was conducted in Helsinki (southern Finland). This project's focus was on the influence of both local (i.e. flowering resources) and landscape (i.e. levels of urbanization) features on bumblebee communities. More specifically, I was interested in the effects of urbanization on bumblebee abundance and species richness. To study this question, community gardens (allotment gardens) were used as study sites along a gradient of urbanization from low to high (chosen by GIS mapping of the levels of impervious surfaces within 500 m of the sites). It is thought that these greenspaces could function as habitat for bumblebees in cities. This study was conducted during the summer of 2013 in 12 community gardens across the city of Helsinki. Two methods to survey bee populations were utilized, pan traps as well as sweep netting. Furthermore, a vegetation analysis was conducted to assess the level of resources present within the gardens, while GIS was used to measure a set of landscape variables in and around each garden. At the end of the season (June to September) the bees were identified and Generalized Linear Mixed Effects models were used to analyze the data. This study found that local variables more strongly predicted both bee abundance and species richness. Even though landscape variables were not strong predictors, this does not make them irrelevant in future conservation strategies. However, it is thought that as long as community gardens are planted appropriately (i.e. native flowers) the bees will be present in these gardens despite the surrounding matrix of inhospitable land (sealed surfaces). In conjunction with the investigation into the effects of local versus landscape determinants, this study also aimed to investigate the perception of gardeners towards bees. A questionnaire was utilized in order to gauge gardeners' opinions towards the bees in their plot and the garden as a whole. These results helped to evaluate the overall attitude towards bees, and in short, were very favorable. This extrapolates to a possibility of working in conjunction with gardeners to conserve habitat for pollinators in the continued effort for interconnected greenspaces in urban areas.

Carbon capture and storage may become an inevitable means in mitigating climate change. However, it is a new technology involving a great deal of uncertainties. It is of utmost importance to understand on one hand, the risks caused by the technology and on the other, what is holding it back. This way unforeseen setbacks and environmental or other damage could be avoided. This thesis is a part of a wider research project on the risk governance of carbon dioxide capture and storage (RICCS). The present study gives additional insights to CCS risk analysis by diving into the stories that the media tells about the risks. I analyze the media coverage on the risks of CCS in the most wide spread newspapers of Norway and Finland with the aim of identifying what kind of risk framings are portrayed by the media; how strong is the presence of uncertainties and what kind of uncertainties are brought up. The media is seen as a mirror of public perception, but also one of the players influencing it. The possible effects that the analyzed articles could have on public perception of risks are discussed. The theoretical framework consists of theories of systemic risks, narrative policy analysis and framing of environmental risks in the media. I describe the nature of systemic risks. Then I move on to framing, more specifically how environmental risks are framed in the media and how it can effect public perception. After this I explain how narrative analysis can be used as a tool for identifying framings. Then I describe Klinke and Renn's Prometheus theory that I will use for analyzing the level of uncertainty in the framing of the articles and for discussing the implications of my findings. The results show that the risks caused by CCS are mainly the lock-in in fossil fuels, it's possible negative effect on developing renewable energy and environmental and health risks in general. The risks towards successful CCS seem to be mainly connected to funding, which connects to emissions' prices, the climate agreement and viability of investments. The differences between the two countries are quite related to the situation in which each country is in terms of CCS development. Norway is very active and pushing CCS forward. Consequently, the Norwegian articles are generally not very critical of the technology itself, but discuss what is holding it back. Generally, the Finnish articles bring out more aspects on the issue, both positive and negative, leaving quite an ambiguous image to the reader. The implications of my findings for future policy practices are quite extensive and therefore not very useful, since most policy recommendations seem more or less relevant. What is interesting though, is that based on my findings I could identify the turning points in which public perception is most relevant. These are: What kind of energy production is supported? Is CCS an acceptable mitigation means? Is the risk of leakage taken as severe? These issues represent turning points for the future of CCS technology and deliberative processes can be crucial when discussing them.

Forest certification has been used as a tool to promote forestry responsibility towards sustainable forest management. Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) is one of the certification systems that is well recognised in Europe. Nevertheless, compared to other European countries, the number of FSC chain of custody (CoC) certifications in Finland is relatively low. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with six FSC CoC certified companies to explore their experiences towards implementing and maintaining the system in their companies. The sample group was comprised of wood and paper product industries in manufacturing and trading sectors. Thematic analysis of the interviews revealed the challenges companies encountered. The results indicated that there were eight types of challenges, including three internal and five external ones, hindering the development of FSC CoC certification in Finland. Internal challenges included competence, financial resources, and a lack of motivation to change. External challenges included insufficient marketing and demand, uncertain cost benefit, keen competitor programmes, limited supply, and long trademark approval time. Meanwhile, the relevant solutions these companies adopted to deal with the challenges were discussed. Since external challenges out-numbered internal ones, it seemed that certified companies are not able to tackle the existing challenges alone. Joint-effort among other actors in the forestry sector, for instance, the national authority, FSC national office, certification bodies are essential to influence the rate of certification uptake. Furthermore, participants discussed about the future development of FSC CoC certification system in Finland. Interviewees believed that the enactment of the EU Timber Regulation (EUTR) and the introduction of forest certification into national public procurement policy could positively impact the development of the system. The results of this study could be used as a reference for potential certificate users to prepare themselves for implementing FSC CoC certification system. In addition, the study could shed a light on the development of FSC in Finland in the future.

This interdisciplinary study seeks to raise awareness of and generate interest in projects that combine science and art. A number of such projects are discussed and analyzed with the help of the concept 'Ecovention'. The concept is operationalized to include works of art that ecologically restore, reclaim, and remediate damaged ecosystems by physical actions and inventions. They transform the ecosystem and often slowly disappear into the environment, contributing to the overall wellbeing of the ecosystem. These works of art are long-lasting and site-specific. They are built outdoors by using material that is already available in the ecosystem or by bringing in environmental-friendly material into the ecosystem. The central research question for the study is as follows: How significantly does environmental art affect the local ecosystem when the starting point is ecological restoration? This is a qualitative study. The data for the study consist of interviews with experts together with analyses of the historical, cultural, and ecological background material for two Finnish environmental artworks. The two artworks are Agnes Denes's Puuvuori (Tree Mountain - A Living Time Capsule, 1996) and Jackie Brookner's Veden taika (The Magic of Water, 2007- 2010). These works of art were chosen because of the availability of historical and natural scientific research data about how they were planned and how they were constructed. The availability of this kind of data related to environmental art is rare in Finland. The Magic of Water consists of three floating islands in Salo. They are situated in a lagoon that was formerly used as a clarification pool at the Salo Municipal Sewage Treatment Facility. The artwork has succeeded in supplying a peaceful nesting habitat for the birdlife in the area. It has been shown that a colony of black-headed gulls (Larus ridibundus) is a new species nesting in the islands. The Magic of Water did not provide a significant improvement of the water quality by phytoremediation since the islands are relatively small in relation to the area of the lagoon. Tree Mountain - A Living Time Capsule is to be found in Pinsiönkangas, at the most important groundwater area in Ylöjärvi. The artwork reclaims a former gravel pit. Tree Mountain is a 28 meter tall hill in an area of elliptical shape that spans nine hectares. 10,600 pine tree saplings (Pinus sylvestris) and about 40,000 cubic meters of soil from the area was used to build the artwork. Tree Mountain is nowadays owned by the town of Ylöjärvi and Pinsiönkangas is principally a conservation area. The Tree Mountain - A Living Time Capsule is argued to fit well in the regionally precious ridgescenary since the work of art has enough of biological values. Most likely the building of the artwork has had a preventive effect on possible ecological harm and it has made the community take responsibility for taking care of the reclaimed environment in the long term. In the face of high-quality ecological restoration plans it is important to approach the restoration of ecosystems from a holistic perspective. The artist s vision of how an ecosystem can be restored adds a surplus value to ecological restoration work since also the aesthetic and ideological dimensions are reconstructed. The probable positive view of the community towards the restored ecosystem can promote not only the attendance by the community to that particular area in the future, but it can also promote the attendance of a community to other areas as well.

The Arctic region is experiencing significant environmental, social and geopolitical changes as climate change impacts the region and thaws the Arctic sea-ice. The notable amount of emerging hydrocarbon and other resources as well as new navigation routes have attracted a lot of interest by a variety of Arctic and non-Arctic actors. The European Union (EU) has been one of these actors. The Arctic affairs have gained increasing attention within its institutions since the launching of the EU s Arctic policy in 2008. The purpose of this study is to find out how the Arctic is perceived in the eyes of the EU as well as how and to what extent the environmental dimension emerge in relation to other topics. A secondary purpose is to examine how these perceptions have changed since 2008. A comprehensive material is used, covering all relevant EU documents. The material is analyzed using a three-staged coding method within Grounded theory. The EU documents discuss several important topics relating to the Arctic region. This study identifies six categories of these topics. These relate to the changes that the Arctic region is facing, the emerging resources, the geopolitical situation and the governance of the region, the EU s role in the Arctic as well as the protection of the Arctic environment. The qualitative approach is mixed with quantitative aspect to find out how much attention each of these concepts get in the documents and how significant the environmental dimension is compared to the other concepts. The EU is globally recognized as an ambitious environmental actor. This study shows that the environmental aspects are well represented also in the EU s Arctic policy documents. The focus of the documents has changed over the years from Arctic resources and a range of problems towards the importance of cooperation and environmental protection in the region. Environmental protection has been motivated by the responsibilities that the EU feels towards the region. However, a goal has simultaneously been to be acknowledged as a legitimate Arctic actor, which would highly benefit the EU in a number of ways. There is nonetheless reason to presume that the EU is serious in pursuing protection of the Arctic environment and this cannot be seen merely as a means to achieve other ends.

Mikrolevien käyttöä biodieselin raaka-aineena on viime vuosina tutkittu paljon niiden ollessa hiilineutraali vaihtoehto fossiilista alkuperää oleville uusiutumattomille polttoaineille. Tämän lisäksi ne ovat myös ekologisesti ja eettisesti kannattava uusiutuvan energianlähde ja tukevat pyrkimystä kohti energiaomavaraisuuden saavuttamista. Mikrolevien todellista mikso- ja heterotrofiaa on tutkittu toistaiseksi vähän eikä niiden hyödyntämän hiilen määrästä ole tarjolla tutkimustietoa. Mikroleväkantojen todellisen mikso- ja heterotrofiakyvyn selvittäminen mahdollistaa kantojen kustannustehokkaamman kasvatuksen, koska mikso- ja heterotrofiaan kykenevät kannat voivat hyödyntää kasvussaan heikompia valaistusolosuhteita korvaamalla ne osittain tai täysin orgaanisilla hiilen lähteillä. Miksotrofisten leväkantojen käytöllä voidaan myös saavuttaa kasvatuksissa korkeampi solusaanto sekä solujen korkeampi lipidipitoisuus. Heterotrofisten kantojen käytöllä voidaan taas kiertää monia mikrolevien kasvatukseen liittyviä ongelmia. Toteutin tutkimukseni kolmella mikroleväkannalla: Selenastrum sp., Chlorella pyrenoidosa ja Euglena gracilis. Tein aluksi kasvatuskokeita, joissa kasvatin kaikkia leväkantoja auto-, mikso- ja heterotrofisissa olosuhteissa. Selenastrum sp. – ja Chlorella pyrenoidosa – kannan kasvatuksissa käytin epäorgaanista COMBO – kasvatusliuosta. Euglena gracilis – kannalla käytin epäorgaanista AF6 – kasvatusliuosta. Tutkin leväkantojen potentiaalista kykyä mikso- ja heterotrofiaan glukoosin ja asetaatin lisäyksen avulla. Seurasin leväkantojen kasvua solumäärän kehityksen kautta. Kasvatuskokeiden perusteella tein päätöksen ottaa kaikki käyttämäni leväkannat mukaan varsinaisiin mikso- ja heterotrofiakyvyn mittauksiin sekä käyttää ainoastaan glukoosia orgaanisen hiilen lähteenä, sillä leväkannat menestyivät heikosti asetaattikasvatuksissa. Mikso- ja heterotrofiakyvyn mittaamiseen käytin 14C-menetelmää. Kaikkien leväkantojen kyky hyödyntää asetaattia (pitoisuus 5 g l-1) oli yleisesti heikompi verrattuna niiden kykyyn hyödyntää glukoosia (pitoisuus 5 g l-1). Kasvatuskokeissa Selenastrum sp. – kannalla vaihtelu oli eri käsittelyiden välillä solumäärän kehityksen ja kasvunopeuden suhteen suurinta. Euglena gracilis – kannalla vaihtelu solusaannon kehityksen ja kasvunopeuden välillä oli pienintä kasvatusten välillä. Selenastrum sp. – kannan miksotrofisesti ottama hiilen määrä oli suurin muihin miksotrofisesti kasvatettuihin leväkantoihin verrattuna. Heterotrofisesti otetun hiilen määrä oli suurin Euglena gracilis – kannalla. Tutkimukseni merkittävin tulos on käyttämieni leväkantojen todellisen mikso- ja heterotrofiakyvyn todistaminen. Laajemmat lisätutkimukset leväkantojen todellisesta mikso- ja heterotrofiasta ovat kuitenkin tarpeen muun muassa mikroleväbiomassan käyttösovellusten kehittämisen ja käyttöönoton sekä vesiekosysteemien hiilenkierron tuntemisen kannalta.

Helsingin niemen edustalla sijaitseva Harakan saari on pieneen kokoonsa nähden kasvillisuudeltaan rikas alue. Saaren käyttö on muuttunut selkeästi viimeisten parinkymmenen vuoden aikana, sillä se avattiin yleisölle vasta vuonna 1989. Viime aikoina saaren luontoa ovat muuttaneet erityisesti siellä viihtyvät valkoposkihanhet, jotka paikoin kuluttavat maata laiduntaessaan, syövät kasveja ja samalla lisäävät maan ravinnekuormaa ulostaessaan. Helsingin kaupungin rakennusvirastolla on koko saarta koskeva Harakan saaren luonnonhoidon ja virkistyskäytön kehittämissuunnitelma työn alla vuosina 2012-2014. Tämän suunnitelman pohjaksi tarvittiin perusteelliset tiedot koko alueen kasvistosta ja kasvillisuudesta, putkilokasveihin keskittyen. Tämän tutkimuksen tavoitteena oli vastata tähän tarpeeseen. Tutkimuksen yhtenä tavoitteena oli kartoittaa koko Harakan saaren putkilokasvilajisto, ja vertaamalla sitä edellisiin kartoituksiin tarkastella kasvistossa lähes 100 vuoden aikana tapahtuneita muutoksia. Saaren kasvillisuudessa viimeisen 22 vuoden aikana tapahtuneita muutoksia tutkin vuonna 1990 perustettujen seurantaalojen avulla. Muun muassa saaren kasvaneiden hanhi- ja lokkimäärien yhteyttä kasvillisuudessa tapahtuneisiin muutoksiin pyrin selvittämään saatavilla olevien tietojen pohjalta. Kasvillisuusmuutoksen lisäksi tutkin maaperätekijöiden ja kasvillisuuden välistä yhteyttä valli- ja kallioniityillä ja näiden kahden biotooppityypin välisiä eroja maaperä- ja kasvillisuustekijöissä. Niityt kuuluvat putkilokasvilajistoltaan Pohjois-Euroopan rikkaimpiin elinympäristöihin. Perinteisen maatalouden vähenemisen myötä sekundaariset niityt ovat harvinaistuneet kaikkialla Euroopassa, minkä vuoksi onkin tärkeää saada lisää tietoa niittykasvillisuuteen vaikuttavista tekijöistä. Kartoitin kesällä 2012 koko Harakan saaren putkilokasvilajiston ja vuonna 1990 perustettujen seuranta-alojen kasvillisuuden. Lisäksi tein saaren valli- ja kallioniityille molemmille kuusi tutkimusalaa, jotka inventoin ja joilta kultakin otin maaperänäytteet. Tutkimusalojen inventoinnissa käytin menetelmänä 1 m2 määritysruutuja. Kasvistokartoitukseni mukaan Harakan saarelta löytyi 258 villinä kasvavaa putkilokasvilajia. 73 % Saarelta vuosien 1918-1920 inventoinneissa löytyneistä lajeista kasvaa yhä saarella. Useita 1990-luvulla Harakasta löytyneitä, Helsingissä huomionarvoisiksi luokiteltuja lajeja ei kuitenkaan enää kasvanut saarella. Seuranta-alojen inventointitulosten perusteella piha- ja valliniittyjen lajimäärissä ja diversiteetissä ei ollut eri vuosien välillä tilastollisesti merkitseviä eroja. Seuranta-alojen lajistossa oli kuitenkin tapahtunut muutoksia. Kallioaloilla jäkälien peittävyys oli seurannan aikana vähentynyt selvästi. Saarella pesivien lokkien ja valkoposkihanhien määrä korreloi negatiivisesti niittyalojen diversiteetin ja kallioalojen jäkälien peittävyyden kanssa, eli lintujen runsastuminen saattaa olla syynä näihin kasvillisuudessa tapahtuneisiin negatiivisiin muutoksiin. Valli- ja kallioniityt erosivat toisistaan muutamien maaperätekijöiden suhteen. Kasvillisuusmuuttujissa ei havaittu tilastollisesti merkitseviä eroja, mutta lajisto oli kuitenkin osin erilaista näillä kahdella biotooppityypillä. Osa maaperätekijöistä korreloi tilastollisesti merkitsevästi niittyjen lajimäärän ja diversiteetin kanssa. Esimerkiksi kaliumpitoisuuden nousu näytti vaikuttavan negatiivisesti valliniittyjen monimuotoisuuteen ja niittylajistoon. Maaperän happamuuden vaikutus niittyjen diversiteettiin näytti olevan eri suuntainen valleilla ja kallioilla. Oletusten vastaisesti maaperän typpipitoisuus ei ollut korkea lintujen lannoituksesta huolimatta, eikä maaperän typpipitoisuudella ollut tilastollisesti merkitsevää vaikutusta kasvillisuusmuuttujiin.

The impacts of climate change are going to be significant in Finland, thus the need to adapt is inevitable. Municipalities are the key to adaptation because the impacts of climate change are met locally. Several cities have developed their measures to climate impacts. However, multiple barriers may hinder the planning and implementation of adaptation measures in the cities. The purpose of this research is to identify and overcome the barriers in urban climate change adaptation in the City of Helsinki. The main data of this research was collected in a workshop and it consists of the blank form replies collected with 6-3-5 method and focus group discussions. 11 civil servants from the City of Helsinki who deal with adaptation issues in their daily work participated in the workshop. The participants identified the barriers and evaluated the most important ones in the workshop: lack of cost-benefit analyses, rivalry of the resources with other interests, lack of urgency regarding adaptation, lack of information, fragmentation of the organization and unclear roles and responsibilities. Identifying the barriers does not solely promote the resilience of the cities but it is an important step in the development of adaptation work. It is essential to seek possible solutions to overcome the identified barriers. Six solutions that can tackle simultaneously several barriers emerged from the data gathered in the workshop: costbenefit analyses, increasing training and information, concrete examples, increasing co-operation, clear modes of action and responsibilities and the support and commitment of the management. With these solutions, the City of Helsinki has the possibility to simultaneously overcome several barriers that were identified in this research. To conclude, the responsibility of climate change adaptation should be clarified in the new city organization and silos between different sectors should be addressed, if possible. It would be useful to utilise the multi-criteria decision analysis in prioritising and argumenting of the adaptation measures in the city. As additional conclusions, it seems that improved co-operation with the universities and research institutions, and legislation indicating clear roles and responsibilities in terms of adaptation might benefit the adaptation work in the City of Helsinki. As for the need for further research, the analytical framework developed and utilized in this research needs to be tested in other case studies also.

The purpose of this Master's thesis is to examine and analyse contradictions typical to many environmental questions and to bring forth the thinking underlying them. The thesis explores how the contradictions are perceived and examines them with the concept of paradigm. Paradigm is defined as a mental model through which the world is seen. Two specific paradigms, exclusive and inclusive paradigm, are identified and conceptualised in environmental thinking and analysed via two case-studies. The aim is to improve understanding of environmental contradictions and conflicts and to find ways to tackle them with paradigmatic level of thinking. The objectives of the thesis are first, to develop theoretical tools to ease comprehensive understanding of contradictions, and second, to enable examination of dichotomies and polarized juxtapositions. The research approach is holistic, and the analytical process applies philosophical methods of problematization, explication and argumentation. Other methodological tools utilized include hermeneutic thinking and abductive reasoning. The case-studies in focus are the human perception of inclusion with nature and the human-wolf conflict in Finland. In the human-wolf conflict case-study content analysis is also applied. The thesis first presents the concepts of opposite and contradiction and examines how they are approached in the Western philosophical tradition. The special focus is on the differences between the logics and the dialectics traditions regarding exclusive and inclusive thinking. The logical laws of non-contradiction and excluded middle and dialectical thinking are the key elements of the theoretical framework. Based on these elements two cognitive models are built: a) a seven-point model that describes the process of neutral opposites turning to problematic contradictions, and b) a four-field sub-paradigm model, which enables examination of contradictions via four different sub-paradigms (atomistic dualism, atomistic pluralism, holistic dualism and holistic pluralism). The models are applied to the two case-studies. The first case-study of human perception of inclusion with nature deals with the human-nature relationship, i.e. to what extent human is perceived to be a part of nature or separate of it. The seven-point model shows how human and nature are separated from each other and perceived as polar opposites at conceptual level in Western thinking. The sub-paradigm model illustrates four alternative ways, exclusive and inclusive, to see the human-nature relationship. In conclusion, juxtaposition of human and nature is shown to result from logical misconception combined with exclusive thinking. Instead of being detached from nature, human is fully dependent on it. The second case-study of the human-wolf conflict in Finland is a classic wicked problem: a complex, multi-stakeholder issue, solving of which requires holistic understanding. The human-wolf conflict is examined utilising both previous academic literature and news and magazine articles on the case. The purpose of this case-study is to offer an illustrative example and to show in a more concrete way the significance of inclusive and exclusive paradigm to the understanding of such environmental conflicts. It is suggested that the polarized situation of the human-wolf conflict could be unraveled by applying the models built in this thesis. Specifically, the inclusive paradigm could have a central role in resolving the conflict. The last section of the thesis discusses why it is important to distinguish what kind of contradiction is at hand and what kind of paradigms they are seen through: paradigms always shape the way the contradictions are seen. It's important to recognise the situations where the two different paradigms should be used. Inclusive paradigm suits to seeking comprehensive understanding to complex problems. Exclusive paradigm on the other hand can help with concrete solutions and decisions. Inclusive and exclusive paradigms themselves form contrary opposites, and should therefore be understood dialectically. The thesis introduces a concept of meta-dialectics emphasising balanced application of the two paradigms in a case- and context-specific manner. Further research could include applications of the models built in this thesis to different environmental cases, investigating in further detail what kind of issues and conflicts would need more inclusive or exclusive thinking. Finally, further development of comprehensive and holistic research methodologies would be highly needed in our increasingly complex world.