Browsing by discipline "Geography"

Kawah Ijen is the picturesque crater of the Ijen volcano located in Eastern Java, Indonesia. However, it is not just any volcano crater, as it happens to be the locus of labour-intensive sulphur mining operation. Each day up to 15 tons of sulphur is extracted from the Ijen crater by the 350 men working as manual miners. These men carry even 100 kilogram loads of sulphur out from the crater with bare brawn and the work is with no doubt burdensome. Kawah Ijen's natural beauty has also caught the interest of tourists', and the crater has become commodified as a tourism destination, visited by hundreds of international tourists each day. Thus the storyline of this master's thesis is two-fold. The first research objective scrutinizes the Kawah Ijen sulphur mine from a commodity chain perspective, emphasizing the tough work the sulphur miners have to bear in order to satisfy the needs of the consumers at the end of the chain. The second, and the essential objective of this research in turn interrogates how the presence of the sulphur miners has become also an inevitable part of the Kawah Ijen tourism experience. In this the aspiration is to elucidate how the sulphur miners have become aestheticized as a Global South tourism attraction. In other words, this research aims to interrogate the peculiarity of this reality, by exploring how both trade and culture, and human and commodity mobilities are entangled and enshrouded within the crater of the Ijen volcano. In human geography, a research framework of 'Follow the thing' has been adopted by scholars in order to study the geographically far-flung production chains of consumer goods. As a framework it aims to make critical political-economic connections between the consumers and distant, and often also underprivileged, producers. In this Marxist-influenced undertaking emphasis is placed particularly on commodity fetishism. This notion has been mobilized to illuminate how consumers have become alienated from the means of production, in their symbolically-laden everyday consumption. As sulphur is a raw material needed in the production processes of many goods such as white sugar, fertilizers, medicines, and rubber, this research shows how these commodities were 'followed' into their origins to this particular sulphur mine. During a period of field work, a method of participant observation was utilized to get contextual understanding of this production site. The initial research objective is therefore to make connections and create awareness of the inequalities within commodity production networks. In the final research objective of this master's thesis, a postcolonial approach is mobilized to critically interrogate this initial setting, in which the miners are seen as poor and stagnant producers. Thus the Kawah Ijen tourists are taken under lens in order to gain understanding of this touristic encounter nuanced with cross-cultural and socio-economic differences between the tourists and the miners. Therefore the setting of Kawah Ijen will not only be observed as a place of production, but also as a site - and object - of consumption. By analysing blogged travel stories written by the tourists themselves, this research aims to illuminate what the tourism experience of the Kawah Ijen is about in the realm of consumption. Special attention is given to how the encounter with sulphur miners has become a constitutive part of the adventurous and authentic tourism experience of Kawah Ijen. The blog post analysis on the Kawah Ijen tourism narrative shows how the imaginaries of the sulphur miner as the 'Other' are adhered to, as the tourists construct their travel identities, make meaning of their experiences and finally represent their experience to the outside world. Finally this research aims to make ruptures to Global South fetishism by elucidating how the Kawah Ijen sulphur mine has become both commoditized and fetishized in its own right. In this fetishzation process the sulphur miners are depicted as poor and primitive, which as categories act as symbols for authentic tourism consumption in the social frameworks of the tourists. However, the aim is not to demonize the tourists, but to give recognition to the nuanced personal and social realities they are embedded in their consumption. Hence, the tourism experience of Kawah Ijen is constructed through a point of view more sensitive to the subjective negotiation of authenticity. It is argued that the Kawah Ijen tourism experience is a process in which the meaning of the experience is negotiated in a wider framework, which is vicariously embedded in postcolonial discourse. Finally, it is concluded that although there is some unequal power relations at presence in the tourism consumption of Kawah Ijen, the tourism can be the means to make more sustainable living for the miners. The leapfrog from the mining to tourism has to be only carried out in a deliberate way with respect to all of the stakeholders.

The purpose of this Master's thesis was to create a new model for screening possible optimal locations for utility-scale solar power plants (i.e. solar parks, solar power stations and solar farms) in larger city areas. The model can be used as a part of a decision making when examining site potentiality in a particular city of interest. The model includes forecasts for the year 2040. The main questions of the thesis are as follows: 1) What are the main criteria for a good location for a utility-scale solar power plant and 2) how to build a geographic information system (GIS) model for solar power plant location optimization? Solar power plants provide an alternative to producing renewable energy due to the enormous distribution potential of solar energy. A disadvantage of utility-scale solar energy production is the fact that it requires larger areas of land than the more traditional power plants. Converting land to solar farms might threaten both rich biodiversity and food production, which is why these factors are included in the model. In this study, methods from the field of geographic information science were applied to quantitative location optimization. Spatial analytics and geostatistics, which are effective tools to narrow down optimal geographical areas, were applied for finding optimal locations for solar power plants, especially in larger city regions. The model was developed by an iterative approach. The resulting model was tested in Harare (Zimbabwe), Denver (United States) and Helsinki (Finland). The optimization model is based on three raster datasets that are integrated through overlay analysis. The first one contains spatial solar radiation estimates for each month separately and is derived from a digital elevation model and monthly cloud cover estimates. The resulting radiation estimates are the core factor in estimating energy production. The second and the third dataset are two separate global datasets, which were used to deal with land use pressure issues. The first of these is a hierarchically classified land systems model based on land cover and intensiveness of agriculture and livestock, while the second is a nature conservation prioritization dataset, which shows the most important areas for conserving threatened vertebrate species. The integration of these datasets aims to facilitate smart and responsible land use planning and sustainability while providing information to support profitable investments. The model is based on tools implemented in the ArcGIS 10 software. The Area solar radiation tool was used for calculating the global and direct radiation for each month separately on clear sky conditions. An estimate of the monthly cloud coverage was calculated from 30 years' empirical cloud data using a probability mapping technique. To produce the actual radiation estimates, the clear sky radiation estimates were improved using the cloud coverage estimates. Reclassifying the values from land use datasets enabled the exclusion of unsuitable areas from the output maps. Eventually, the integration and visualization of the datasets result in output maps for each month within a year. The maps are the end product of the model and they can be used to focus decision making on the most suitable areas for utility-scale solar power plants. The model showed that the proportion of possible suitable areas was 40 % in Harare (original study area 40 000 km2), 55 % in Denver (90 000 km2) and 30 % in Helsinki (10 000 km2). This model did not exclude areas with low solar radiation potential. In Harare, the yearly variation in maximum radiation was low (100 kWh/m2/month), whereas in Denver it was 2.5-fold and in Helsinki 1.5-fold. The solar radiation variations within a single city were notable in Denver and Harare, but not in Helsinki. It is important to calculate radiation estimates using a digital elevation model and cloud coverage estimates rather than estimating the level of radiation in the atmosphere. This spatial information can be used for directing further investigations on potential sites for solar power plants. These further investigations could include land ownership, public policies and investment attractiveness.

Tässä tutkimuksessa perehdytään lukion maantieteen opetuksen sähköistämiseen niin yhteiskunnan digitaalisen murroskauden kuin myös ainetta opettavien opettajien kautta. Lukion maantieteen opettajien asema tutkimuksessa on keskeinen, koska heidän vastuullaan on opetussuunnitelman mukaisesti toteuttaa opetusta nykypäivän vaatimusten mukaan. Sähköistäminen on tapahtunut vauhdilla eivätkä opetusmenetelmät ole pysyneet mukana. Nuoret käyttävät usein sähköisiä välineitä paremmin kuin opettajansa. Ero kasvaa, kun opetetaan vanhoilla menetelmillä ja välineillä arjessaan uutta teknologiaa käyttäviä nuoria. Arjen ja tulevaisuuden vaatimukset tulisi saada kunnolla osaksi kouluopetusta. Viimeistään ylioppilaskirjoitusten sähköistäminen syksyllä 2016 herättää siihen, että sähköisiä opetusmenetelmiä ja -välineitä tulisi käyttää jo nyt. Mutta mikä tilanne on nyt ja miten opettajat asiaan suhtautuvat? Tässä tutkimuksessa selvitettiin sähköisen kyselytutkimuksen avulla eri puolella Suomea työskentelevien lukion maantieteen opettajien (n = 96) käyttämiä sähköisiä opetusmenetelmiä ja -välineitä sekä asenteita koko sähköistämistapahtumaan. Kolmantena tutkimuskysymyksenä toimi opetuksen sähköistymisen tulevaisuuden kehitys. Kyselyä täydensi kolmen asiantuntijan haastattelut aihepiiristä. Kyselyn tulokset analysoitiin ja esitettiin tilastokuvioina aina laitekäytettävyydestä oman tietoteknologiseen osaamisen arviointiin. Tulosten analysoinnin yleisenä linjana paljastui lukion maantieteen opettajien myönteinen asenne muutoksia kohtaan teoriassa, mutta uusien menetelmien ja välineiden ottaminen konkreettisesti mukaan opetukseen ei ollut ajan tasalla. Koulutuksen ja ajan puute, vähäiset resurssit ja osaamattomuus nousivat suurimmiksi kompastuskiviksi. Tutkimuksen mukaan opettajat kokivat, että ylioppilaskirjoitusten sähköistäminen tapahtuu liian nopeasti eikä koettu, että siitä olisi tiedotettu tarpeeksi. Perusohjelmat ja sähköiset opetusvälineet olivat käytössä yleisesti, mutta esimerkiksi tilastollisia menetelmiä ja paikkatieto-ohjelmia ei hyödynnetty vielä kaikkialla Suomessa. Tuloksista nousee esiin kysymys sähköisten ylioppilaskirjoitusten ajoituksesta ja siitä, miten maantieteen opetuksen käytännön puoli saataisiin mukaan päättäjätason edellyttämän kehityksen mukaiseksi.

Multiple factors determine diversity of diatoms in running waters. Diversity is a complex concept and made up by different components. Diversity can be divided into alpha, beta and gamma diversity. These different types of diversity are regulated by factors operating on a large geographic scale and by local environmental factors. Studies concentrating on diversity patterns of diatoms have become more common in the last 10 years. Especially beta diversity has gotten an increasing interest. Despite the increasing interest in the subject, the driving mechanisms are still not fully understood in aquatic ecosystems. The aim of this theses is to investigate which factors affect alfa and beta diversity in 10 streams in southern Finland. The influence of habitat heterogeneity on beta diversity is also investigated. In addition, the aim is to examine which local environmental factors structure the variation in species composition. The study area covers a 115 km wide area to minimize the effect of large scale factors on species composition. The material consists of environmental data and diatom data from 49 study sites. Land use data used in the study is derived from CORINE Land Cover 2012 data set. All samples were collected during a two-week period (30.7.2014–11.8.2014). Statistical methods used were linear models, generalized linear models (GLM), distance based redundancy analysis (db-RDA) and test for homogeneity of multivariate dispersions (PERMDISP). Water conductivity and light conditions at the study sites were strong environmental factors determining diatom alpha diversity. Habitat heterogeneity showed only a marginally significant positive relationship to beta diversity but a clear trend was visible in the data. The db-RDA results showed that different environmental factors accounted for the variation in species composition. Conductivity, light, water color, water temperature and stream width were important factors explaining variation in species composition. These results suggest that there is a possible connection between habitat heterogeneity and beta diversity. Further research in the subject should be done to determine if there is a significant relationship. The local environmental factors are important for structuring species composition. Possible anthropogenic stress factors influencing stream ecosystems can affect patterns of beta diversity and should be emphasizes in coming research.

The indigenous forests of the Taita Hills, SE Kenya, boast a vast biodiversity and provide several vital ecosystem services to local communities. Population growth and land use change pressures have resulted in a significant decrease in indigenous forest cover in the Taita Hills in recent decades. Quantifying the aboveground biomass (agb) and carbon sequestration capacity of the Taita forests provides a strong argument for striving for their more efficient protection in the context of UN-REDD programme. Although the role of tropical forests as global carbon sinks has been widely recognized, their agb and leaf area index (LAI) remain uncertain. Optical remote sensing (RS) provides a cost-effective means of LAI and agb estimation in remote areas, but empirical modeling using remote sensor data has limited certainty in densely vegetated tropical forests. The agb and LAI of the Taita Hills were estimated using empirical regression modeling by relating in situ data (n = 181 for agb, n = 172 for LAI) and spectral vegetation indices (SVIs) derived from SPOT HRVIR optical remote sensing data. Field plots (20 m x 20 m = 0.04 ha) were located in indigenous (n = 80) and exotic (n = 83) forests, woodlands (n = 9) and agroforestry areas (n = 9). In situ LAI was derived from hemispherical photography (HP) using Lang's approach and the foliage clumping correction method by Chen & Cihlar. In situ agb was estimated using allometric equations which relate agb with tree parameters such as tree diameter at breast height. Empirical relations between the response variables (agb, LAI) and SVIs were utilized in predictive regression modeling. The predictor variables were selected using forward stepwise regression based on Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) values. The regression models resulted having only one predictor each due to the redundancy of the SVIs. Also topography-based predictor variables were tested, but they were poorly or not at all related with LAI and agb. The models performed moderately (D2 = 0.62 for LAI model, D2 = 0.41 for agb model). The total agb and carbon sequestration of the study area were estimated as 4.264 Tg and 2.132 Tg C, respectively. Mean agb densities of the indigenous forests and the whole study area were estimated as 463 ± 190 Mg ha-1 and 126 ± 115 Mg ha-1, respectively. Mean in situ LAI of the indigenous forests and all plots were estimated as 3.66 ± 0.44 and 3.12 ± 0.84, respectively. Indigenous plots had the highest mean in situ agb density and LAI values compared to exotic forests, woodlands and agroforestry areas (ANOVA p < 0.001). The RMSE values of the models were 0.59 (18.6 %) for LAI and 376.85 Mg ha-1 (82.9 %) for agb. The agb model was negatively biased (bias: -107.1 Mg ha-1, 23.6 %), but there was no statistically significant bias in the LAI model. The resulting agb estimates are rather high due to high in situ agb values, partly resulting from the emphasized contribution of very large trees to biomass on small plots. LAI values are quite low for dense tropical forests due to indirect estimation method using HP, but still comparable with other similar studies. As expected, the modeling performance was impaired by SVI saturation effect in relation to LAI and agb. The agb model was biased most likely due to the use of transformed variables in linear regression. The predictive models are not transferable to other regions as such, for the relative prediction performance of SVIs is case-specific and the model parameters have to be estimated using in situ data for each site. In order to improve the model credibility, a more extensive dataset based on a random or a systematic sample should be used, having larger plot size and containing more observations with low LAI and agb values.

Northern and high-altitude environments are expected to change dramatically due to climate change which strongly affects vegetation. Regarding to this, there has been interest on investigating how climatic factors affect vegetation distribution. One of the widely used methods to study species environment relationship is spatial species distribution modelling, in which the aim is to estimate suitable niches for species. However, only a few comprehensive distribution predictions for whole species groups have been made at a fine resolution and covering large extents. In the case of arctic-alpine plants Fennoscandia offers a good research area in terms of northern location, variable topography and wide climatic gradients. In this thesis the aim was to discover how climate affects the distribution and species richness patterns of arctic-alpine vascular plants. Relationship between arctic-alpine vegetation and climate was investigated by producing distribution predictions for each species based on important climatic variables and topography. Species data included observations from national species portals of Sweden and Norway, as well as field observations from three test regions Kevo, Northwestern-Lapland and Rastigaissa. The explanatory variables used were efficient temperature sum, water balance, minimum temperature of the coldest month and relative height. The species distribution predictions were produced using a 1 km2 grid covering whole Fennoscandia. Four different modelling methods (GAM, GLM, GBM, RF) were used and the predictions done with two different data sets. First the models were calibrated using only the observations from species portals, and the predictions were evaluated at the Lapland´s test regions. On the second modelling round the whole data was used in model calibration. From the modelling results both individual species distributions and the distribution of the whole vegetation group were investigated, as well as the relative importance of the explanatory variables. Then individual species distribution predictions were combined to visualize and study arctic-alpine species richness and its hotspots. Distribution of arctic-alpine vegetation was affected most by efficient temperature sum and minimum temperature of the coldest month. However, the relative importance of the variables varied for different species. Also the differences in the calibration data affected the results. Mainly species´ predicted distributions are located on areas where growing season is short and winter temperatures are low, even though there was some variation in the responses caused by the latter variable. Temperature variables were also significant in explaining species richness and its hotspots. It was shown that species richness focuses to the coldest areas and benefits from a bigger topography gradient. The results of this thesis show that climate defines both the distribution and the richness of arctic-alpine vegetation in Fennoscandia. However, resolution of one square kilometer does not fully capture the heterogeneity of the arctic-alpine area since temperature and moisture conditions vary greatly locally, for example depending on snow cover. Research on different scales is still needed to understand complicated species environment relationships.

The purpose of this study was both to establish Finnish geography teachers' experiences on and opinions of the active teaching method flipped classroom, and to examine the impact of the method on high school students learning outcome in natural geography. The aim was to aquire information on how familiar geography teachers are with flipped classroom and what qualifications they have on using an active teaching method that requires technological knowledge. The experiences and opinions about flipped classroom of geography teachers (n=49) were charted using an e-mail survey. The teaching experiment (n=32) was implemented as a field experiment in a first year geography class at a high school in Southern Finland. The results were analysed using a statistical analysis program and presented through graphs and citations. The survey shows that Finnish geography teachers are familiar with flipped classroom but that only a few of the respondents use the method in their work. The most common excuses among the teachers for not using flipped classroom, or not being interested in learning new teaching methods, is a lack of time and resources. The teachers' technology skills are good and they agree on the fact that geography education is better when technology is implemented in the classroom. The teaching experiment shows that the teaching method used didn't affect the students' learning outcomes substantially but a small negative impact was nevertheless shown. Active education methods need to be implemented in the Finnish classrooms in order to meet the goals of the new curriculum. Digitized matriculation examinations, new curricula and a new distribution of courses places new demands on geographical education. Geography is, fortunately, a subject that easly allows different educational ideas and methods to be used.

Geographical Information Systems (GIS) are increasingly used to support the emergency planning. GIS methods can be utilized when planning the emergency response system as well as in the emergency management during and after incident. In this study, GIS methods are applied to maritime Search and Rescue (SAR) planning. Traffic amounts are constantly growing in the Gulf of Finland (GoF) and SAR response has to keep up with them. Means to evaluate the SAR response are needed to ensure the adequacy of rescue resources. The voluntary SAR response in in the Finnish waters of the GoF is evaluated. The focus is on the operations of the Finnish Lifeboat Institution (FLI) that is the umbrella organization for voluntary maritime rescue associations in Finland. However, it is hoped that also other SAR operators can apply the presented methods when planning their SAR operations. The main interest is in boating because leisure boats are most often the object of a rescue mission. Timeliness is crucial in emergency operations and thus the SAR response is evaluated here mainly based on the response times. The response times with the current fleet of the FLI are modelled with cost distance methods. Weather factors affect significantly the speed of the Search and Rescue Units (SRU). Therefore, in order to make the results more realistic, different wave height scenarios are included in the cost distance calculations. The wave heights are modelled with two different wind speeds and three different wind directions. The results contain response time maps for the whole study area in different wave height conditions, response times for past incident sites, response times with two units and response times for high incident density areas. Also the number of concurrent incidents in certain sub-areas is observed. According to the results of the thesis the voluntary SAR response in the GoF is generally good. Some improvements would be necessary if the FLI would be the only SAR operator in the area. However, if the units of Finnish Boarder Guard (FBG) are also taken into account the response seems adequate. Therefore, no major changes in the operations of voluntary SAR organizations in the GoF are suggested. Instead, the adequacy of the SAR response elsewhere in Finland could be evaluated. The lower density of SRUs outside the study area may result in inadequacy of SAR response.

Maantieteen ylioppilaskirjoitukset sähköistyivät ensimmäisten joukossa syksyllä 2016. Sähköistymisen myötä maantie- teen ylioppilaskoe tarjoaa uusia monipuolisempia tehtävätyyppejä ja geomedia-aineistoja. Painopisteenä ovat aineisto- jen soveltaminen ja tulkitseminen. Geomedialla tarkoitetaan maantieteellisiä lähteitä, kuten karttoja, tilastoja ja kuvia. Pro gradu -tutkielmani tavoitteena on selvittää kuinka kokelaat osaavat ratkaista uudentyyppisiä soveltavia luonnon- maantieteen tehtäviä ja hallitsevat geomedian käytön osana vastausta. Lisäksi tutkin millaisiin kognitiivisen ajattelun taitoihin tehtävänannot ohjaavat. Tutkimukseni avulla saadaan viitteitä lukionsa päättävien oppilaiden geomediatai- doista, vastausten laadusta sekä pystytään kehittämään ylioppilaskirjoituksia entistä parempaan suuntaan. Työssäni tutkitaan kahta luonnonmaantieteen tehtävää syksyltä 2016 ja keväältä 2017 (N=400). Geomedian käyttöä tutkitaan koko aineistosta ja kokelaiden kirjallisista vastauksista käytetään osaa aineistosta (N=140). Tehtävänannot luokitellaan uudistetun Bloomin taksonomian avulla ajattelun eri tasoille. SOLO-taksonomian avulla luokitellaan sekä kirjalliset että kuvalliset vastaukset. Lopuksi tuloksia verrataan keskenään. Tutkimuksessa kiinnitettiin huomiota eten- kin kuvien ja diagrammien tuottamiseen, aineiston hyödyntämiseen ja viittaamiseen sekä kokelaiden valmiuksiin pär- jätä sähköisissä ylioppilaskirjoituksissa. Tutkimuksessa käytetyt luonnonmaantieteen tehtävät ovat rakennettu niin, että ne sisältävät monipuolisesti erilaisia ajattelun taitoja mittaavia tehtäviä. Siirryttäessä tehtävissä eteenpäin vaaditaan kokelailta korkeamman ajattelutaitojen käyttöä. Tehtävissä tulee soveltaa geomedia-aineistoa, kirjoittaa esseitä ja tulkita aineistoa. Saatujen tuloksien perus- teella kokelaiden geomedian käyttötaidot vaativat vielä harjoittelua ja kuvien tuottaminen osana sähköistä koetta koe- taan vielä haastavana. Omaa ajattelua olisi kaivattu enemmän ja moni vastaus vaikutti ulkomuistista tuotetulta. Haas- tavaksi koettiin rakentaa johdonmukainen, selkeä ja jäsennelty vastaus. Vastaukset sijoittuivat suurimmaksi osaksi yh- den rakenteen vastaustasolle. Vastaustaso nousi korkeammalle SOLO-tasolle tehtävänannon vaatiessa korkeamman ajattelun taitotasoa. Geomedia oli selvästi kokelaille vielä uusi asia. Parhaimmillaan itse tuotetut kuvat olivat informa- tiivisia ja tukivat kirjallista vastausta. Kuvat olivat joko itse piirrettyjä, kuvankaappauksia tai muokattuja kuvankaap- pauksia. Itse tuotetut diagrammit olivat selkeitä ja helppolukuisia sekä esittivät tehtävänannossa kysytyn asian hyvin, mutta niidentulkinta koettiin haastavaksi. Aineistoon ja itse tuotettuihin kuviin oli viitattu harvakseltaan.

The objective of the research is to study how the geopolitical situation during and after the Cold War can be distinguished in the national security strategies and discourses of the United States of America. The end of the Cold War has been understood as a turning point in the study of geopolitics. This represent a transition to an era where the influence and meaning of individual states has diminished, and the world has moved into the era of globalization. The objective of the study is to determine how these changes can be detected in the foreign policy of the United States and the geopolitical discourses. Other specific research questions include how the United States perceives itself in world politics during and after the Cold War and how the difference is visible in the comparison of the national security documents and the public speeches of the presidents. The data that has been chosen for the study represents the National Security Strategies of the United States from the years 1950, 1987, 2000 and 2010. These documents are compared to the State of the Union Addresses from the corresponding years. The research method that is used is critical discourse analysis, which is used with traditional discourse analysis to reveal the power relations behind the discourses. Tabulation is used in the quantitative analysis to study the effects of globalization in the vocabulary. The changes in the discourses and highlighting different values indicate that alternating political goals transform the discourses that are used. The effect of globalization is detected in the altered way of speaking about enemies and allies, about the organizations and alliances that states form and about the economy. The change in the position of the President is present in the documents especially through discourses and argumentation strategies. Compared to traditional and critical geopolitical studies, the documents indicate that the research tradition should place more emphasis on the economy and how it has affected international relations and international security. The significance of economy as a pacifying element is highlighted in the results of the document. The documents indicate that the United States has strived to promote capitalism from the beginning of the Cold War which has created an interdependent political system, which makes conflicts between these states less likely. These changes are visible already before the end of the Cold War, and therefore this specific event does not represent a dramatic shift in the discourses.