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Sound travels faster and further in water than in air while electromagnetic radiation, among it visible light, attenuates fast. Marine animals have adapted to use sound in foraging, predator avoidance, orientation and communication with conspecifics. The underwater soundscape of the Baltic Sea remains largely undiscovered. The area is a unique acoustic environment due to its variant hydrography, broken coastline, shallowness, low salinity and the resulting strong stratifications. The harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena) is the only cetacean inhabiting the area, and its Baltic Sea subpopulation is critically endangered. This work is based on first sound pressure measurements of BIAS (Baltic Sea Information on the Acoustic Soundscape) -project by Finnish Environment Institute and other project participants. Measured sound pressure levels are compared to weather and shipping observations to collect information about the contributions of natural and anthropogenic sound sources to underwater sound pressure levels in the Baltic Sea. In addition porpoise observations collected at the Universities of Southern Denmark and Århus are compared to measured sound pressure levels and shipping data to examine if increased noise levels or increased shipping activity have an impact on harbor porpoise echolocation activity. The results show that at the Gulf of Finland both weather and shipping drive the levels of ambient noise at low frequencies (63 and 125 Hz third-octave bands). However the sound pressure levels caused by ships near the stations (up to 5 km) always exceeded all natural variation. Increased sound pressure levels and ship proximity seemed to have an impact on porpoise activity at the area. When a ship was very close (2 km), the registrations of porpoise echolocation clicks decreased with decreasing proximity to ship. On the other hand during spring months an increase in porpoise echolocation was recorded in relation to increased sound pressure levels, which might indicate the porpoises compensating to increased background noise by echolocating more frequently or loudly.

My master’s thesis aims to determine the effect of salinity on phytoplankton traits related to nutrient acquisition, and particularly how this interacts with resource availability. Salinity is an important driver structuring phytoplankton communities in the Baltic Sea. Salinity can also influence nutrient uptake by increasing metabolic rates required for osmotic adjustment. Thus, interaction between salinity and nutrient availability is expected to change community structure by altering phytoplankton traits determining resource competition. This is a particularly relevant area of study for the Baltic Sea due to predicted future freshening of the sea’s upper layer. We performed a microcosm experiment using artificial communities of 10 diverse phytoplankton species grown under different combinations of salinity (0, 5, 12 and 24), Nitrogen to Phosphorus molar ratio (N:P ratio = 2, 10, 16 and 80) and light (10 and 130 µmol photon m-2 s-1) conditions. A three-way interaction among these environmental parameters influenced phytoplankton traits associated with resource competition, as well as the presence and proportions of phytoplankton taxa. Light limitation inhibited community growth under all salinity conditions, but allowed diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum to dominate. Community growth rate was higher under high light, but also more variable between salinity conditions. The strongest negative effects of nutrient limitation (N, P, and both nutrients together), both on growth rate and taxonomic diversity, were observed in the highest salinity treatment. In the freshwater treatment with the highest proportion of green algae Monoraphidium sp., N-limitation did not inhibit phytoplankton community growth and P-limitation had a more profound negative effect on community performance. Decreasing salinity appeared to decrease community C:N and C:P ratios. This shift is in opposition to the increasing C:N and C:P predicted as a consequence of other climate change-related drivers. Our results emphasise the importance of a trade-off between salinity and resource limitation in functioning of phytoplankton communities and suggest that future freshening of the Baltic Sea is likely to modify phytoplankton community composition and performance.

Urbanization is occurring at rapid rates worldwide. While the effects of urbanization are numerous, those on wildlife are of utmost concern in the continued fight for biodiversity conservation. Specifically, the focus on global pollinator declines is of interest due to the interconnectedness between pollinators and plant communities. It is feared that urban areas could become dead zones to these species, specifically bumblebees. Bumblebees are one of the native pollinators of Finland, and therefore were the focus of this study, which was conducted in Helsinki (southern Finland). This project's focus was on the influence of both local (i.e. flowering resources) and landscape (i.e. levels of urbanization) features on bumblebee communities. More specifically, I was interested in the effects of urbanization on bumblebee abundance and species richness. To study this question, community gardens (allotment gardens) were used as study sites along a gradient of urbanization from low to high (chosen by GIS mapping of the levels of impervious surfaces within 500 m of the sites). It is thought that these greenspaces could function as habitat for bumblebees in cities. This study was conducted during the summer of 2013 in 12 community gardens across the city of Helsinki. Two methods to survey bee populations were utilized, pan traps as well as sweep netting. Furthermore, a vegetation analysis was conducted to assess the level of resources present within the gardens, while GIS was used to measure a set of landscape variables in and around each garden. At the end of the season (June to September) the bees were identified and Generalized Linear Mixed Effects models were used to analyze the data. This study found that local variables more strongly predicted both bee abundance and species richness. Even though landscape variables were not strong predictors, this does not make them irrelevant in future conservation strategies. However, it is thought that as long as community gardens are planted appropriately (i.e. native flowers) the bees will be present in these gardens despite the surrounding matrix of inhospitable land (sealed surfaces). In conjunction with the investigation into the effects of local versus landscape determinants, this study also aimed to investigate the perception of gardeners towards bees. A questionnaire was utilized in order to gauge gardeners' opinions towards the bees in their plot and the garden as a whole. These results helped to evaluate the overall attitude towards bees, and in short, were very favorable. This extrapolates to a possibility of working in conjunction with gardeners to conserve habitat for pollinators in the continued effort for interconnected greenspaces in urban areas.

The goal of this study has been to compile and to further develop a collection of biodiversity indicators for Finland. Biodiversity indicators aim at bringing forth information related to biodiversity change and the factors causing it in a condensed and easy to understand manner. The factual information which indicators provide is supposed to appeal to the reader's intellect and thus to have an influence on her opinions and behavior. Biodiversity indicators also aim at influencing biodiversity related politics. Being successful at this, biodiversity indicators can make a strong contribution towards reaching the most important goal of nature conservation - the perpetuation of natural variety. The study is divided into two parts. The first part presents a preliminary collection of 75 biodiversity indicators. These indicators are based on the biodiversity monitoring and research data as well as other statistical data which were readily available at the time of their composition. In addition to the statistics and literature reviewed the study is based on interviews of numerous experts. The collection of 75 biodiversity indicators enables a reasonably comprehensive assessment of the major factors effecting biodiversity as well as of the state and development of some components of biodiversity (e.g. endangered species). It, however, contains too few indicators on the state and development of common species and on many important characteristics of ecosystems. The data for such indicators were not available. The second part of the study consists of a review of some European national biodiversity monitoring schemes, international biodiversity indicator development projects as well as Finnish national biodiversity monitoring field programs. Based on the review, recommendations for the further development of the indicator based biodiversity information system are made. The second part of the study concludes with a proposal for an expanded biodiversity indicator collection which contains 31 new indicators. The expanded biodiversity indicator collection could provide a sound factual foundation on which comprehensive assessments of state and development of biodiversity could be based. Such assessments are needed when the effects of biodiversity related politics are evaluated and decisions concerning where to focus conservation efforts are made. At the end of this study possible applications of the expanded biodiversity indicator collection are examined in the light of four different conservation objectives

Biodiversity is essential for human wellbeing and activities as it supports a diverse set of ecosystem services. Currently, biodiversity is rapidly declining. Biodiversity loss is the second significant global risk after climate change. To reduce environmental stress, there is a need to find sustainable alternatives to unsustainable raw materials and consumables. The chemical industry has an important role in developing environmentally friendly solutions such as bio- based products and solutions, which require utilization of biomass. However, extraction of bio- based raw materials creates more pressure on biodiversity and contributes to biodiversity loss. It is essential that companies who extract natural resources are transparent about their actions concerning biodiversity. By adequately sharing information in corporate reports, companies can enhance their legitimacy. This thesis contributes to scientific discussion on biodiversity reporting which is researched to a limited extent. Material of the thesis was collected from corporate reports and interviews with globally operating chemical companies. By using qualitative content analysis, this thesis describes how chemical companies report on biodiversity as part of their corporate reporting to maintain their legitimacy and how biodiversity is perceived within the chemical industry. Biodiversity is a complex concept and intangible system, which cannot be sufficiently measured yet. This may help to explain why biodiversity reporting within the chemical industry is varying and inconsistent. There is a need to improve companies’ understanding on biodiversity to enhance biodiversity reporting. Adequate reporting can help to understand complex natural processes, enhance environmental protection, and reduce the problem of greenwashing.

Formation of template switching mutation has previously been proposed as a mechanism of RNA evolution. TSM mechanism may contribute to the creation, maintenance, and modification of the RNA Hairpin. The finding of de novo TSM in RNA sequences will provide evidence for this hypothesis. Ribosomal RNAs (rRNAs) appear in multicopy clusters on different chromosomes and evolve through concerted evolution. To study the properties of de novo TSM and the dynamics of the concerted evolution of rRNA, we developed a computational tool to analyze pairwise differences and the phylogenetic relationship of rRNA genes on different chromosomes. The genome assemblies that are based on traditional short-read sequencing methods have limitations on studying long tandem repeat rDNA, because the reading length is shorter than on the rRNA gene. To overcome this limitation. PacBio Hifi long-read sequencing data for human rRNA 18S and 28S genes were studied. By analyzing the diversity of rRNA genes between individuals and families, single nucleotide mutations, multiple nucleotide insertions, and deletions were identified. As expected, genetic variations in ribosomal genes were detected both within and between individuals. A larger sample size may be required for TSM identification. The finding of this research that related to the dynamics and concerted evolution of human rRNA may contribute to a better understanding of rRNA mutation-related genetic disorders.

Tässä työssä tutkin, minkälaiset käyttäytymistä määrittävät tekijät koetaan esteiksi biojätteen lajittelulle sekä mitkä ihmisryhmät lajittelevat biojätteensä passiivisemmin kuin toiset HSY:n alueella. Analysoin tutkielmassani kyselytutkimusaineistoa klusterianalyysin avulla, jonka perusteella etsin mahdollisia lajittelua estäviä tekijöitä ja tarkastelen vastaajien demografisten tekijöiden jakaumaa passiivisten ja aktiivisten lajittelijoiden joukoissa. Lisäksi hyödynnän ympäristöpsykologian teorioita ja tutkimusta ympäristömyönteiseen käyttäytymiseen kannustamisesta. Tätä teoriataustaa ja tuloksiani soveltamalla ehdotan mahdollisia interventioita, joiden avulla voidaan tehostaa kotitalouksien biojätteen lajittelua pääkaupunkiseudulla ja Kirkkonummella. Biojätteen lajittelu kotitalouksissa on tärkeää, sillä lajitellulla voidaan lisätä jätteiden hyötykäyttöä, mikä edistää kiertotaloutta Suomessa. Biojäte on erityisen tärkeä jätelaji kierrättää, koska kompostoinnin ja mädätyksen avulla siitä saadaan lopputuotteina uusiutuvaa biokaasua, josta tuotetaan energiaa sähkönä yhteiskunnan tarpeeseen, sekä ravinnerikasta multaa, jota voidaan hyödyntää maanviljelyssä ja viherrakentamisessa keinolannoitteiden korvaajana. Kotitalouksissa syntyvä orgaaninen jäte sisältää runsaasti typpeä, joten biojätteen lajittelu edistää myös ekologisesti kestävää typen kiertoa. Analysoin työssäni HSY:n kuluttajakäyttäytymiskyselyn vastauksia monimenetelmällisesti hyödyntämällä kvantitatiivista klusterianalyysia sekä kvalitatiivista teema-analyysia. Tulosteni perusteella havaitaan, että passiivisten lajittelijoiden vastauksissa korostuu lajittelun vaivalloisuus, tiedonpuute sekä paikalliset deklaratiiviset normit käyttäytymistä rajoittavina tekijöinä. Lajitteluesteiden tunnistaminen ja kuvaileminen auttaa arvioimaan mahdollisia käyttäytymismuutostekniikoita, joilla kannustaa asukkaita lajittelemaan biojätteensä paremmin. Tuloksistani voidaan päätellä, että proseduraalisen tiedon saaminen, lajittelun ympäristövaikutuksista oppiminen sekä lajittelun helpottaminen voivat kannustaa asukkaita lajittelemaan biojätteensä huolellisemmin. Löydösten perusteella voidaan kohdentaa viestinnässä ja kampanjoinnissa käytettäviä tekniikoita, jolloin niillä voidaan tehokkaammin kannustaa ympäristömyönteiseen käyttäytymiseen ja saadaan HSY:n alueen lajitteluaste nousemaan biojätteen osalta.

There are no comprehensive research data on Finnish matriculation examinations in biology. This type of data is needed, because evaluation guides what and how students learn and what they consider important. Genetics is one the most challenging topics in biology, and in the opinion of teachers it will continue to be an important discipline in the future. The importance of studying genetics can also be justified with philosophical, social and health reasons. This is why the present study focused on the genetics component of the matriculation exam in biology. The aim of the study was to provide information on the challenges and contents of past matriculation examinations in biology and how they have aligned with high school curricula. The results of the study could be used to evaluate this alignment in relation to genetics questions in the biology exam, and could help in designing new matriculation examinations that align better with the existing high or new high school curricula and their aims. The research questions were: 1. What knowledge and cognitive dimensions are measured with the genetics-related questions in matriculation examinations in biology? 2. How do knowledge and cognitive dimensions in genetics-related questions in biology matriculation examinations relate to high school curriculum aims? The data comprised matriculation examination papers in biology from spring 2011 to autumn 2020 (20 exams) and the aims of the Finnish national High School Curriculum in 2003 and in 2015. Qualitative content analysis was performed on the knowledge dimensions (factual, conceptual or procedural knowledge) and the cognitive process dimensions (remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating or creating). The basis of this qualitative content analysis was Bloom’s revised taxonomy. The analysis was conducted on genetics-related matriculation examination questions and on the aims of the high school curriculum. The test questions and the aims were compared to determine whether they aligned. Classified questions were divided into two subcategories depending on which high school curricula they corresponded to. Genetics-related questions from spring 2011 to autumn 2017 corresponded to the High School Curriculum in 2003 and questions from spring 2018 to autumn 2020 corresponded to the High School Curriculum in 2015. Questions from the previous period were divided into all knowledge dimensions. All questions, except one, incorporated lower cognitive dimensions (remembering, understanding and applying). The main combined class was understanding conceptual knowledge. Questions from the later time period were also divided into all knowledge dimensions. Mostly lower cognitive dimensions were incorporated into the questions, but a few subquestions addressed higher cognitive dimensions (analyzing, evaluating and creating). The main combined class was understanding conceptual knowledge. All the aims were classified into conceptual or procedural knowledge classes. The aims were also divided between all cognitive dimensions, except remembering. Using constructive alignment as the basis for matching aims with questions, two aims in the High School Curriculum of 2003 and six aims in the High School Curriculum of 2015 had no questions that matched them. These aims mostly measured the cognitive dimension of creating. Several aims appeared to incorporate higher cognitive dimensions, but the questions were less well aligned with the aims than with those incorporating lower cognitive dimensions. The results concerning knowledge and cognitive dimensions were mostly as expected. Lower cognitive dimensions were highlighted in genetics-related matriculation examination questions in biology. The challenge of interpretation brought ambiguity to the aims and cumulative levels of cognitive dimensions when aligning questions with aims, as some of the questions aligned with aims did not assess such high cognitive dimensions as would be expected based on the aims, but were nonetheless aligned with them. Furthermore, there may be several reasons behind the absence of the creating dimension in matriculation examination questions. The alignment of questions and aims would be important to consider in the future, because evaluation has a considerable impact on studying.

Effective population coding is dependent on connectivity, active and passive postsynaptic membrane parameters but how it relates to information transfer and information representation in the brain is still poorly understood. Recently, Brendel et al. (2020) showed how spiking neuronal networks can efficiently represent a noise input signal. This "D_Model” successfully showed that spiking neural networks can recreate input signal representations and how these networks can be resilient to the loss of neurons. However, this model has multiple unphysiological characteristics, such as instantaneous firing and the lack of units related to physical values. The aim of the present study is to build upon the D_Model to add biological accuracy to it and study how information transfer is affected by biophysical parameters. We first modified the D_Model in the MATLAB environment to allow for the simultaneous firing of the neurons. Using our CxSystem2 simulator in a Python environment (Andalibi et al. 2019), we built a network replicating the one used in the D_Model. We quantified the information transfer of Leaky Integrate-and-Fire units that had identical physiological values for both inhibitory and excitatory units (Comrade class) as well as more biologically accurate physiological values (Bacon class). We used various information transfer metrics such as granger causality, transfer entropy, and reconstruction error to quantify the information transfer of the network. We examined the behaviour of the network while altering the values of the capacitance, synaptic delay, equilibrium potential, leak conductance, reset potential, and voltage threshold. Broad parameter searches showed that no single set of biophysical parameters maximised all information transfer metrics, but some ranges fully blocked information transfer by either saturating or stopping neuronal firing. This suggests theoretical boundaries on the possible electrophysiological values neurons can have. From narrow searches within electrophysiological ranges, we conclude that there is no single optimal set of physiological values for information transfer. We hypothesise that different neuronal types may specialise in transferring different aspects of information such as accuracy, efficiency, or to act as frequency filters.

The aim of this study was to identify which bird impact types are considered significant in practice in Finnish environmental assessment reports regarding wind power. Increasing numbers of wind turbines can impact birds directly and indirectly, which could contribute to the loss of bird diversity. Amid climate change mitigation attempts, biodiversity loss should not be overlooked. Environmental impact assessment is an example of a policy tool for identifying and reducing the negative environmental effects of a project, including bird impacts. All wind power-related EIA reports with significant bird impacts were collected from the joint website of Finland’s environmental administration and analyzed with the help of qualitative content analysis. The 18 cases were divided according to the types of impacts found in the literature. Although all four impact types including collisions, displacement due to disturbance, barrier effect, and habitat change were considered significant in the EIAs, collisions were the most frequent. Very little comparable data about the significance of different impact types were found. However, collisions were the most researched impact type, which could have also contributed to the evaluation of its significance. The results corresponded to previous literature for the most part as Accipitriformes (diurnal birds of prey excluding falcons), according to several studies, are more vulnerable to the impacts of wind turbines. They were estimated to face significant impacts more often compared to other bird orders present in the materials. The reasonings between the cases were quite similar, despite the ambiguity of the significance assessment. In the cases where the reason for significance was stated, the level of protection of the species was the most common. The results also support the argument about how the impact type, the object of the impact, and the significance of an impact vary depending on the locations. The findings of this thesis suggest that scientific data is used at least partially in significance assessments. The results are useful in future research, developing EIA practices, and enhancing bird protection. Looking at significant impacts is relevant also in the future as the assessment of significance is not uncomplicated.