Browsing by study line "Ympäristö- ja luonnonvaraekonomia"

Ilmastonmuutos on globaali ongelma, jonka torjunta vaatii merkittäviä päästövähennyksiä. Energiantuotanto on yksi merkittävä ilmastolle haitallisia päästöjä aiheuttava sektori. Samaan aikaan globaali energiankysyntä kasvaa jatkuvasti väestönkasvun ja teollistumisen seurauksena. Energiantuotannon päästöjä voidaan vähentää energiateknologialla, uusiutuvan energian ja energiatehokkuuden avulla. Tieteelliset teoriat, joista yksi tunnetuimmista on Porterin hypoteesi, näkevät tiukan ympäristöregulaation vaikuttavan positiivisesti teknologiseen kehitykseen. Ympäristösääntelyn ollessa korkealla tasolla sekä Suomessa että EU:ssa, on Suomella Porterin teorian mukaan hyvät edellytykset kehittää energiateknologiaa ulkomaanvientiin asti. Myös Suomen valtio on panostanut viimevuosina energiateknologian kehitykseen ja maan tavoitteena on hyötyä energiateknologian kehityksestä kotimaisten päästövähennysten lisäksi energiateknologiaviennin kasvattamisen avulla. Tutkielmassani selvitän Suomen energiateknologiaviennin kehitystä ja sen piirteitä vuosina 2010–2018. Olen määrittänyt 457 energiateknologian tuotetta, jotka kuvaavat Suomen energiateknologiaviennin kokonaisuutta. Tutkin tarkemmin Suomen vuoden 2018 energiateknologiavientiä sekä tuulivoimateknologiavientiä vuosina 2010–2018. Suomen energiateknologiavienti on pysynyt melko tasaisena tarkastelujakson ajan. Suomen vuotuinen energiateknologiavienti liikkui viiden miljardin euron tuntumassa vuodesta 2010 vuoteen 2018. Sen sijaan Suomen tuulivoimateknologiavienti on aaltoilevaa, mutta siitä oli havaittavissa kehittyvä kasvutrendi vuodesta 2010 vuoteen 2018. Global climate change is a major issue. Limiting the rise in global temperature below a critical point requires big emission reductions. Globally, energy production causes emissions harmful to the climate. Demand for energy is constantly growing because of population growth and industrialization. However, advances in renewable energy technology can help reduce the levels of emissions. Energy technology can also reduce the final consumption levels of energy by improving energy efficiency. In Finland and EU, environmental regulation is on high level and some theories suggest that this advances technological development. A well-known theory supporting this is Porter’s hypothesis. Regarding these theories, Finland has a good opportunity to develop its energy technology. The government of Finland is investing in low-carbon energy technology and it aims is to gain some benefits by exporting these technologies. In this paper, I will study the exportation of energy technology of Finland in 2010–2018 in general, but also focusing on the exportation of wind power technology. I have defined 457 energy technology products that form the export of energy technology of Finland. The energy technology of Finland has been stable in 2010–2018. The value of this trade in euros has remained stable, approximately five billion euros. While the share of energy technology exports from the total value of exports in Finland has slowly reduced in 2010-2018. Wind power technology export of Finland have been fluctuating, but they have increased more clearly than the total energy technology export of Finland.

Given the urgency of the drastic reduction targets for air traffic, it is necessary to assess which different actions will benefit the achievement of the targets in the short-term. Investments in new and lower-emission aircrafts take time, making them long-term solutions. The introduction of alternative jet fuels, in turn, are impaired by inadequate production levels and lack of economic viability. The benefits of climate offsetting will only be seen in the long term, despite short-term actions. This study presents different tax instruments as the only solution to reduce aviation emissions in the short-term, in the absence of abatement technology. In this Master's thesis I examined, how taxation as a policy instrument can curb aviation emissions in the short-term. The policy instruments considered were fuel, ticket and seat tax and VAT, as well as emissions trading. The impact of the taxes were tested on three different one-way routes. The selected routes included a domestic flight and one intra- and inter-EEA flights. The analysis of short-term emission reduction measures assumed a monopolistic market structure, where the focal airlines have market power. The results were derived by optimizing the flight ticket price from the airline’s profit function, which was used to estimate the number of passengers on the given routes, and thereby the weight of the aircraft as well as the final fuel consumption and the emissions. The results showed, that emission reductions for all the given policy instruments remained very low in the short-term. This finding was not only due to insufficient tax levels, but also to the relatively low share of the passengers in the total emissions. Of the selected instruments, the smallest emission reduction was achieved by emissions trading, and the largest reductions by ticket and value-added tax. The seat tax was not found to have any impact on the emissions. Looking at airline profits, it was found that despite the highest emission reduction figures, the impact of the ticket tax on profits was relatively low compared to other instruments. The largest losses and highest tax revenues were generated from VAT on flight tickets. In addition to emissions trading, the fuel tax was the only policy instrument directly linked to emissions. The increase in fuel prices caused by the fuel tax could make alternative jet fuels, such as synthetic fuels, competitive in the markets. Achieving significant emission reductions in the short-term would require cutting entire flights. However, a significant reduction in passenger numbers could be avoided by seeking to increase the passenger load factors. In reality, airlines have multiple ways to adjust to the given policy instruments. The future research could be extended to consider also other forms of policy adaptation and long-term adaptation strategies.

The concerns over the availability of rare earth elements (REEs) supply have risen. Meanwhile, China controls the supply side, the demand is increasing because of REE-containing products, such as wind turbines and electric vehicles, gaining more popularity in the transition towards low-carbon economies. In response to the financial and environmental challenges of opening new mines, recycling has been identified as an alternative to meet the demand for REEs. Furthermore, the European Union (EU) has the potential to grow its recycling sector as it is one of the world’s largest producers of REE-containing waste, with the potential to reduce dependence on China’s supply. This thesis aims to study the interaction between China the extractor and the EU the recycler in the market of REEs. As recycling can only emerge from the scrap extracted earlier, the extractor can influence the profitability of recycling activities. An extractor that intends to maximize its revenues anticipates the behavior of the recycler and based on that makes decisions. To accomplish the objective of the thesis, a two-period game theoretic model is employed. In the first period, there is one player, the monopolistic extractor, who turns into a dominant firm in the second period, while the recycler emerges as a fringe firm. Game theory provides a useful framework for analyzing the behavior of the players, each seeking to maximize their objectives in interaction with each other. To study the additional impact of recycling on the decision-making path, the Hotelling rule is used and modified. The model is applied in five different scenarios: private solution, planner’s solution with and without recycling, nonstrategic, and strategic behavior. Analytical and numerical solutions are presented to illuminate the implications and outcomes of these interactions, including their impacts on resource allocations and price paths. Results from the scenarios reveal that extraction in period one significantly influences recycling outcomes. While high extraction levels in period one, coupled with recycling, lead to optimal joint welfare for the EU and China, they also drive down market prices of period one, reducing extractor’s revenues. Consequently, the extractor is motivated to delay extraction toward period two, strategically influencing the availability of recyclable scrap and a maintaining higher market price in period one. Strategic behavior, where the extractor anticipates the recycler’s optimal strategy in period two, yields maximum revenues for the extractor and minimizes the recycler’s profit. These findings provide insight into the economic efficiency of managing REEs. While the EU is interested in enhancing its market share, this thesis underscores the complexity of market dynamics and the interdependence between extraction and recycling.

There are many potential ways to reduce CO2 emissions in road freight transportation, of which the utilisation of electrification offers several interesting opportunities. The study analyses the relative cost-competitiveness of battery-electric heavy-duty vehicles and vehicles utilizing electric road system (ERS) to the traditional diesel-powered fleet through the TCO framework. The framework is extended to the cost-effectiveness analysis to consider the external effects regarding vehicle´s life-cycle emissions, and thus the unit cost of the emission reduction achieved through the electrification can be determined. The concrete effects of the electrification of Finnish domestic heavy-duty freight are roughly studied through three arterial roads located in Southern Finland: Helsinki–Turku, Helsinki–Lahti and Helsinki–Tampere. The study utilises existing public research and statistical data on the subject areas. Although the operating costs of the electric trucks are lower than the diesel trucks, only the overhead catenary ERS vehicle in the heaviest 60-ton weight class is less expensive than the equivalent diesel-powered truck in terms of the total cost of ownership. The costs of the battery packs and the catenary line connection in ERS vehicles significantly increases the purchase cost of the electric trucks. Based on the analysis, the emission reduction of 66–79 percent can be achieved with battery-electric trucks and 81–89 percent reduction with ERS-powered vehicles compared to the corresponding diesel-powered vehicles. Although the TCO of ERS vehicles is lower and the achievable emission reduction potential is higher than in the battery-electric vehicles studied, the investment cost of the ERS infrastructure increases the total costs so substantially that the utilisation of battery-electric technology is less expensive option from the society´s point of view. The less expensive life-cycle emission reductions are achieved with the heaviest battery-electric vehicles studied, which according to the analysis, could be achieved with a cost of 139–150 EUR/tCO2. The emission reduction cost of a battery-electric truck without a trailer would be 650 EUR/tCO2. Assuming that it is possible to fully electrify the heavy-duty freight which utilises the studied arterial roads, the total increase in life-cycle costs is approximately EUR 0.7–2.1 billion for battery-electric trucks and EUR 1.5–2.3 billion for ERS trucks. The annual emission reduction potential by replacing fossil fuels with electric vehicles is approximately 0.3–0.5 Mt CO2-eq., which is circa 9–15 percent of the annual emissions of all heavy road freight in Finland. Although the analysis is carefully conducted, it would be fair to say, that significant uncertainties are associated with the background assumptions and data. Already the wide spectrum of the vehicle usage and operating environment can have a major impact to the vehicle characteristics, and thus the results. Further research would also be needed to investigate the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and the war in Ukraine to the component availability, purchase prices, and changes in fuel and electricity costs. Also, the applicability of electric technology in commercial heavy-duty transportation requires further research.

Tutkimuksessa konkretisoidaan muutostarpeita maatalouden suojakaistojen käyttöönottoon liittyen, kun ulkoisvaikutukset huomioidaan ravinnehuuhtouman, eroosion, kasvihuonekaasupäästöjen, monimuotoisuuden sekä virkistyksen näkökulmista. Ulkoisvaikutuksien taloudellista mittaamista varten muodostetaan haitta- ja hyötyfunktiot soveltuvien tutkimusten perusteella. Tutkielmassa optimoidaan suojakaistan leveys ja rantapeltohehtaarien lannoitusmäärä ja tarkastellaan optimoinnin tuottamaa hyvinvointia (€/ha). Tarkastelussa muodostetaan kaksi hyvinvointiyhtälöä, joista toisessa on käytössä nurmipeitteisiä suojakaistoja ja toisessa luonnontilaisia suojakaistoja. Tapausesimerkkinä toimii Eurajoen pääuoma. Yksin ravinnehuuhtouman näkökulmasta on voinut olla perusteltua ohjata maanviljelijöitä kapeiden nurmipeitteisten suojakaistojen käyttöönottamiseen. Tämän tarkastelun mukaan suojakaistojen optimaalinen käyttöönotto selvästi muuttuu, kun useampi ulkoisvaikutus huomioidaan. Usean ulkoisvaikutuksen oloissa suurimman hyvinvoinnin Eurajoen pääuoman valuma-alueella tuotti luonnontilainen 86 metriä leveä suojakaista. Optimaalinen typpilannoitustaso vesistön viereisellä pellolla oli tällöin 83 kg N/ha. Lisäksi huomattiin, että kapeat alle kymmenen metriä leveät suojakaistat tuottavat aina hyvinvointitappion. Ulkoisvaikutuksista ilmastohaitta ja monimuotoisuushyöty vaikuttivat tuloksiin voimakkaimmin, ja ravinnehuuhtoumahaitta heikoiten. Herkkyysanalyysissä suojakaistan leveyteen vaikutti voimakkaimmin viljan markkinahinta ja hyvinvoinnin määrään puolestaan maksuhalukkuus monimuotoisuudesta. Nykyisten maataloustukien joukosta ei löydy tukivaihtoehtoa puustoisen suojakaistan säilyttämiseen. Tarkastelun perusteella maatalouden kannustimia tulisi muuttaa tukemaan luonnontilaisten suojakaistojen käyttöönottoa muuttamalla suojakaistoihin tai -vyöhykkeisiin liittyviä maataloustukia ja niiden ehtoja. Tarkastelun optimin saavuttamiseksi luonnontilaisen suojakaistan perustamisen tueksi laskettiin 681 €/ha ja nurmipeitteisen suojakaistan tueksi 580 €/ha. Typpilannoiteveroksi saatiin 0,44 €/kg N. Tarkasteluun liittyy useita oletuksia ja yksinkertaistuksia rajautuen saatavilla olevaan tutkimustietoon maatalouden suojakaistoilla. Esimerkiksi oletettu Eurajoen kasvillisuuden alkuperäisyys ja lajimäärä ovat karkeita arvioita. Lisäksi esimerkiksi luonnontilaisen suojakaistan ravinnehuuhtoumafunktioon hyödynnettiin metsätaloustutkimukseen perustuvaa tietoa, ja monimuotoisuuden rajahyötyä kuvaa kosteikkotutkimukseen liittyvä arvottamistieto.