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Urban areas have a central role in human’s impacts on the planet. A persistent, fundamental and systemic transformation of urban areas to be more sustainable is a widely recognized pursuit. Involving a variety of stakeholders in decision-making and discussing how, why, and to whose benefit urban areas should be changed is central for governing urban transformations. The study elaborates which features and negotiations key stakeholders relate to sustainable urban transformation. This is done through a frame analysis, and a serious game is used in data collection to facilitate discussion between participants. The results of this study show how urban sustainability and transformation can be framed in many ways that highlight different aspects. Role of private businesses, a competitive setting between cities, trust between different groups and accountability to citizens are elaborated in the negotiations on sustainable urban areas. Urban transformation is discussed especially related to low-carbon traffic, greening urban areas, preventing climate-change related flooding, adding possibilities to participate decision-making and more adaptive city planning. The study concludes that open communication between stakeholders of urban transformation is crucial to build trust and understanding between groups, but demand for openness may contradict with the interest for urban areas to appear in good light to and desirable for businesses and new residents.

Urban energy transitions play a key role in achieving climate targets and keeping the climate crisis from escalating. The district heating system of Helsinki has been characterised as a path-dependent and locked in system that will face difficulties in transitioning away from fossil fuels. In 2021 the city owned energy company Helen announced that it will quit coal burning in 2024, which is five years ahead of the national coal ban prohibiting coal use for energy in 2029. The coal phase out of Helsinki is a concrete example of a demanding coal phase out in a northern city with high energy demand. This thesis aims at answering the research question on how the multilevel policy mix, consisting of policy instruments on the municipal level, the national level, and the international level, contributed to the coal phase out of Helsinki. Through a case study approach relying on ten expert and stakeholder interviews as well as complementary material consisting of key strategy documents, this thesis aims to widen the understanding of the role of policy and politics in sustainability transitions and urban energy transitions. This study covers both policymaking and implementation processes as well as system impacts of the policy mix contributing to the coal phase out of Helsinki. Through empirical reviews the thesis contributes to the conceptualisation of policy mixes on multiple governance levels by studying the combined impact of policy instruments formed at the local, national, and international level. Regulatory policies on the national and international level (emissions trading, national ban on coal, taxation etc.), policies supporting low-carbon solutions on the national level (tax-exemptions) and climate target setting as well as support for low-carbon solutions on the municipal level (deregulation, innovation competitions) altogether contributed to the coal phase out. The findings of this study are in line with previous research emphasising the destabilisation of fossil fuel regimes to achieve transitions towards sustainability. Incorporating the elements of policy processes and strategies as well as policy effects and feedbacks into the concept of policy mixes is important to assess the efficacy and long-term impacts of policy mixes. The coherence of policies on multiple governance levels and the balance between regime destabilising and niche creating policies is also important in ensuring transitions towards sustainability. The results of this study support previous research findings on cities being important arenas and actors for sustainability transitions. Policies from different governance levels intersect on the urban level and decisions on infrastructure transformation are made on the municipal level.

Leaf senescence is a developmental and physiological phase in plants to end leaf development. Environment factors such as drought stress, extreme temperature, and pathogen threat and internal factors including age and reactive oxygen species induce leaf senescence. Some phytohormones such as jasmonic acid and salicylic acid play a key function in cell death in plants. WRKY transcription factors is known as one of the largest transcription factor family in plants which regulates a variety of plants processes. WRKY75 which belong to WRKY transcription factors has shown multiple functions in plant development like regulation of Pi starvation responses and root development and flowering. In my thesis, I focused on the role of WRKY75 in senescence and stress responses. WRKY75 was identified as a positive regulator of cell death in Arabidopsis. WRKY75 can promote salicylic acid biosynthesis by promote transcript levels of SID2 and also cause hydrogen peroxide accumulation by suppressing the transcription of CAT2. Hydrogen peroxide and salicylic acid can promote WRKY75 transcription at the same time. To evaluate the function of WRKY75 transcription factor in SA signalling and cell death, three lesion mimic mutants acd5, cat2, dnd1 and their corresponding wrky75 double mutant were used. Interestingly, no different phenotypes were found between acd5, cat2, dnd1 and their corresponding wrky75 double mutants in cell death and hydrogen peroxide accumulation detection in Arabidopsis leaves. Meanwhile, marker genes transcription levels were not different in both short day and long day growth condition. However, different phenotypes were observed in botrytis infection. Based on these results, we formed a hypothesis that gene redundancy could influence genetic characterization of WRKY75. To overcome this problem, SRDX-WRKY75 chimeric repressor transgenic lines were generated. The SRDX domain act as a dominant negative regulator to suppress WRKY75 target genes. In future research, these new lines can be used to test transcript levels for putative WRKY75 target genes.

Lynch syndrome (LS) is the most common cancer predisposition disease caused by dominantly inherited pathogenic variant (PV) of a mismatch repair (MMR) gene leading to a defective gene allele. The four major MMR genes encode MMR proteins – MSH2, MSH6, MLH1 ja PMS2 – that participate in the proofreading and repairing of the daughter strand for mismatches after every replication. The inherited PVs predispose to cancer development as only one somatic allele loss is required for biallelic loss according to the Knudson’s “two-hit” hypothesis. The biallelic loss of an MMR-gene leads to disrupted protein function altering the MMR process. When mismatches are left unrepaired, genomic instability is caused, which can eventually lead to tumorigenesis. Especially, the risk of colorectal cancer (CRC) and endometrial cancer (EC) is increased in LS. The predisposition syndrome, LS, is important to detect as early as possible to decrease the risk of cancer by prevention and surveillance. The MMR genes and their defects vary in their consequences to the repair process considerably, and thus, it is crucial to know the different characteristics and functional effects of them when estimating the level of cancer risk. Variants of uncertain significance (VUS) are especially prevalent among LS variants. More information about their impact to the disease can be acquired by in vitro and in silico methods, for instance. The main goal of the efforts for early detection and prevention is to reduce cancer morbidity and mortality. In this thesis, the pathogenicities of MSH2 and MSH6 variants were studied with DiagMMR assay, which has been developed for studying the protein function of these genes. In addition to the traditional agarose gel electrophoresis (AGE), the samples were also analyzed by a fragment analyzer, Labchip, that bases its function on capillary electrophoresis. This way the MMR detection efficiency of the methods could be compared. Samples were collected as skin biopsies from controls and LS patients with known MMR gene variants by Helsinki University Central Hospital (HUCH). InSiGHT database, that collects the different MMR-gene variants and their pathogenicity classification, was used to ensure that different kinds of variations, both pathogenic (class 5) and currently internationally unlisted variants, were analysed. The skin samples were cultured to acquire primary fibroblasts for nuclear protein extraction. The level of pathogenicity was revealed by MMR-protein activity when substrate DNA with a mismatch was added to the extract. Then, restriction enzymes were used for producing fragments of different lengths, depending on the repair action, and the MMR efficiency was visualized by both electrophoretic methods. Additionally, MAPP-MMR tool was used for studying the MSH2 mismatch variants in silico. By comparing the results from these two methods, we show that the more quantitative Labchip brings diagnostic value to DiagMMR suggesting 100% specificity (n=10) and 90,9% (n=11) sensitivity in reference to the variant information. For example, MSH6 c.3103C>T, which is listed as pathogenic in InSiGHT, was more consistent in giving a MMR deficient (dMMR) result with Labchip. Difference in the functional detection could be seen particularly with the MSH6 variants, but the differences were less notable when Labchip results were compared to the previous interpretations of the samples made based on the validated DiagMMR protocol. With the unlisted MSH6 variants, c.3139dupT was detected as dMMR by Labchip which was in unison with the previous interpretation. Another one, MSH6 c.551delA, was seen as MMR proficient (pMMR) in all the results by both the methods, and with the previous interpretation being unclear, which highlights the importance of further testing of this variant. There was also one unlisted variant (c.1805T>C) among MSH2 for which we got uniform dMMR results in two patients. The high MAPP-MMR score (25.150) for the MSH2 p.Leu602Pro amino acid change also supported the evidence gained of the pathogenic nature of this variant. As a conclusion, DiagMMR can be used reliably for MMR efficiency analysis, especially when performed together with a more quantitative analysis method.

The analysis of gaze behaviour is nowadays commonly employed to help with the diagnosis and exclusion of differential neurological conditions as well as to help researchers better understand cognition in the early stages of life. However, its application in the developmental evaluation and follow-up of children with early-onset epilepsy has not been profoundly studied yet. Therefore, the current study aimed to investigate the association between the gaze behaviour of infants with early-onset epilepsy and their future neurodevelopmental outcome. To study the association and its predictive ability, three models were created. Sixty-three infants with epileptic seizure onset before 12 months of age participated in the study with the voluntary consent of their parents. Infants’ gaze behaviour was recorded with Tobii Pro-X3-120 at two measure points. The results showed infants’ initial ability to fixate their gaze, changes in their gaze shift probability in the first 12 months of life, and structural aetiology to be significantly associated with the infants' developmental outcome at 24 months of age. Where the structural aetiology was significantly associated with poorer developmental outcome, good initial fixation ability and improvements in the infants’ gaze shift probability during their first year of life were significantly associated with more positive outcome. These findings suggest that gaze behaviour at an early age is an essential predictor of later development in infants with early-onset epilepsy. Hence, eye-tracking could provide means to evaluate the later neurocognitive outcome of infants with early-onset epilepsy at an early age.

According to the latest estimations, cancer is the second leading cause of death worldwide. Despite the significant advances in the range of drugs and treatment modalities to treat cancer, the number of deaths is estimated to continue rising, posing serious challenges for the patients, their families, and the healthcare systems. Conventional treatments tend to be associated with severe adverse side effects and treatment resistance. Consequently, safer and more efficient therapy options are urgently needed, especially for the treatment of metastatic tumors refractory to conventional treatments. A new and revolutionizing field in oncology is immunotherapy, in which oncolytic viruses are included. Oncolytic viruses have an inherent or acquired selectivity to replicate exclusively in tumor cells, ultimately destroying them. Simultaneously, they also activate the dormant host’s immune system to fight against the tumor. Adenoviruses, particularly, have shown to be safe, inducing only mild adverse side effects in clinical trials, making them a great candidate for further clinical development. Adenoviruses can be genetically modified to increase their infectivity or improve the anti-cancer immune responses induced by the virus, e.g., through the expression of immunostimulatory molecules. The focus of this thesis was to develop and characterize several genetically modified oncolytic adenoviruses expressing either OX40L alone or OX40L and CD40L, two co-stimulatory molecules capable of engaging both the innate and adaptive arms of the immune system to fight the tumor. The insertion of the transgenes into the E3B-14.7k region of the Ad5/3-∆24 adenovector plasmid was performed using Gibson Assembly® cloning approach. After successful cloning, the recombinant viral genomes were transfected into A549 cells for viral amplification, followed by CsCl purification to produce a high titer viral preparation. The expression of the transgenes was studied in vitro by ELISA and functional assays, showing promising expression levels of functional OX40L and CD40L. However, when the infectivity and virus killing potency were analyzed, in vitro by immunocytochemistry and MTS assay; and in vivo using an immunodeficient mouse model, the data showed that the cloned viruses performed sub-optimally when compared to the control unarmed virus (Ad5/3-∆24). These findings suggest that the insertion of the two transgenes in place of the E3-14.7k gene was detrimental to the fitness of the virus.

Lifespan is a key fitness trait, together with fecundity, dispersal, and growth. In addition to environmental factors shaping variation in lifespan, it is also influenced by genetic components. Based on theory, genetic variation in lifespan is expected to be reduced due to its high relevance to fitness. However, due to trade-offs between different life-history traits and the variable or unstable environmental conditions organisms face in nature, life-history traits are also expected to sustain higher genetic variation. From studies in model organisms, such as the fruit fly and the roundworm, researchers have uncovered key insights into the genetic basis of lifespan. Some genes have been shown to contribute more to lifespan than others and different species seem to share homologous genes influencing lifespan that have been conserved. Many of these genes relate to the insulin receptors and insulin signaling processes. The allelic variation and over- or under-expression of these genes have been shown to be associated with changes in lifespan. However, regardless of our accumulating knowledge of these genes in impacting lifespan under laboratory conditions, we have little understanding of the role of these genes impacting variation in lifespan under more natural conditions. In general, assessment of genes affecting variation in lifespan in natural populations is rare, even under circumstances where we know that the lifespan has a heritable component. The Glanville fritillary (Melitaea cinxia) is a butterfly that inhabits most of Europe. It is used as a model species in ecology and evolution in relation to metapopulation dynamics and spatially structured habitats. It has been studied extensively both under experimental conditions and via observational studies in the field. The Glanville fritillary butterfly works as a good model organism for assessments of genetic components of life-history variation, as vast amounts of genomic and ecological data are already available. In this thesis, I aim to shed light on the genetic background of lifespan by using the Glanville fritillary as a model organism. More specifically, I will test the association of some well-known lifespan-related candidate genes with a phenotypic variation on the butterfly’s adult lifespan based on previously obtained experimental data on individuals collected from the natural metapopulation during the larval stage.

The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) is a small mammal native to the Iberian Peninsula, but introduced by humans to all continents except Antarctica. The rabbit has been a remarkably successful invasive species due to its generalist nature and fast reproduction. Its spreading has mostly been destructive to the local nature, and humans have used fatal rabbit diseases such as rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHD) to control harmful populations. The rabbit population in Helsinki is one of the most northern annually surviving rabbit populations in the world. It is believed to have originated from escaped pet rabbits in the late 1980s, and in the early 2000s, the rabbits spread rapidly around the Helsinki area. RHD spread unintentionally to Finland in 2016, and the disease caused a significant reduction in the Helsinki rabbit population. Rabbit population genetics has previously been studied in several countries, but never before in Finland. The aim of the thesis was to examine the genetic diversity and population structure of the Helsinki rabbit population before and after the RHD epidemic, and to compare the results to similar preceding rabbit population genetic studies. Rabbit populations have previously been found to recover from major population crashes without a notable loss in genetic diversity using DNA microsatellite markers. The recent RHD epidemic in Helsinki provided an opportunity to study, whether a rabbit population can recover from a population crash even in a harsher environment without losing genetic diversity. To conduct genetic analysis, fourteen DNA microsatellite loci were genotyped from individuals caught during two distinct time periods, in 2008-2009 (n=130) and in 2019-2020 (n=59). Population structure was observed in both temporal rabbit populations with small but significant FST values. The 2019-2020 population was more diverse than the 2008-2009 population in terms of allele numbers and expected heterozygosity. This result was unexpected considering the recent RHD-epidemic but could be explained by gene flow from new escaped rabbits. Compared to other wild rabbit populations around the world, the Helsinki area rabbits exhibit significantly lower genetic diversity. Bottleneck tests showed a significant signal separately in both temporal populations, but the RHD bottleneck cannot be distinguished based on the tests. The results could be biased by new gene flow, or the initial bottleneck caused by the founder effect of only a few pet rabbits. The rabbits have demonstrated their adaptation and survival skills in the cold climate of Helsinki. The population has significantly lower genetic diversity compared to other wild populations, yet recovered from a major RHD epidemic without reduction in genetic diversity under these more extreme environmental conditions. It has been proven again; the rabbit is a thriving invasive species.

Progressive retinal atrophy or PRA is a collective term for a group of hereditary degenerative retinal diseases in dogs. PRA affects the photoreceptor cells of the eye ultimately progressing into complete vision loss. Documented in over 100 breeds, it is the most common type of canine retinal diseases. PRA is considered a homologous disease to human retinitis pigmentosa, thus providing a large animal model for studying retinal biology and genetic aetiology of its diseases. The objective of this thesis was to study the genetic cause of a novel form of PRA in young Finnish Lapphunds. Analysis built upon a combination of gene mapping methods and analysis of next­ generation sequencing data. Gene mapping was performed with two analysis methods, genome­-wide association study and homozygosity mapping, utilising single nucleotide polymorphism microarray based genotype data. Identifying a clinical phenotype from the canine biobank at the University of Helsinki resulted in a study cohort of six case and 10 control dogs. Combined with pedigree information, this early­-onset PRA was most likely a new autosomal recessive condition in the breed. Genome­-wide analyses resulted in the discovery of a disease­-associated locus on chromosome 27. Findings of single nucleotide variant filtering of one whole-­genome sequenced affected dog led to the prioritisation of an intronic substitution variant (T > C) in SOX5 gene as a potential cause of PRA. Genetic validation of the variant with 23 dogs showed promising results. Four out of five affected dogs were homozygous for the variant, while controls were either wild-type or heterozygotes. As a result, a previously unknown disease locus was successfully identified, suggesting a possible new spontaneous canine model of retinitis pigmentosa. By better understanding the patho­physiological processes of disease, improved diagnostics and marker­-based testing as well as novel therapies can be developed for both dog and man. However, further studies are needed to understand the underlying molecular mechanism of the candidate disease variant.

The next-generation sequencing (NGS) platforms create a large amount of sequence in short amount of time, when compared to first generation sequencers. An overview of the NGS platforms is provided with more in-depth look into Illumina Genome Analyzer II as that is used to create the data for the thesis. There were two main aims in this thesis. First, to create a pipeline which can be used to analyse genomic sequencing. Second, to use the pipeline to compare whole human exome capture methods from two manufacturers, Roche Nimblegen and Agilent. The pipeline is describe in detail in material and methods. All the inputs for the pipeline are described and examples shown. In the pipeline the given sequences are first aligned against the reference genome. Then various separate analysis is performed to retrieve variants and coverage of the sequencing. Supplementary results include paired-end anomalies, larger insertion and deletion polymorphisms and assembly of non-aligned sequences. The two capture methods are also described and changes to the manufacturers' recommended protocols are listed. Finally, the section has the options and various inputs used in the pipeline runs of the exome data. The results of the pipeline is a basic level of analysis of the sequencing as well as various graphs showing the quality of the run. All the output files intended for user are described. By using the results of the pipeline, the user can do more in-depth analysis as required by the project. When comparing the two exome capture methods, the Nimblegen capture was shown to be more efficient in capturing the CCDS exome. While the Agilent capture kit provided better one fold coverage over the exome, higher fold coverage (over 10 fold), which is required for reliable variant calling in nextgeneration sequencing, was better reached using the Nimblegen capture kit. Also, significantly fewer false positive paired-end anomalies were observed in the library created by using the Nimblegen capture.